Dr.M.

HEERALAL
Associate Professor&Head
Geotechnical Engg Division
Department of Civil Engineering
NIT, Warangal
Mobile NO: 9052066114
Email:mhl@nitw.ac.in

CIVIL ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

Engineering is the art of converting knowledge into useful

practical applications.
Engineering is the profession practiced by the application of
Mathematics
natural and physical sciences
after study, practice experience and judgment to evolve
ways for the effective and economic use of materials and
forces of nature for the benefit of the individual and society
An engineer is a person who plays the key role in this
process of conversion since engineering is the profession
which serves people, their environment is an important
consideration

Difference b/n engineer & scientist

Often, there have been difficulties in
distinguishing engineers from scientists.
it is difficult to determine where the work
of the scientists ends and that of the
engineer begins. The basic distinction b/n
the linked professions of science and
engineering lies in their goals.
scientists aim to invent ----- while engineers
strive to use the inventions effectively to
cater to the needs of man kind.

Example: the German physicist Heinrich

Hertz discovered radio waves while
Guglielmo Marconi developed wireless
telegraphy using radio waves. And after
the scientific principles of nuclear fission
were established, the hard work of
creating atomic weapons and useful power
plants was accomplished by electrical,
chemical and mechanical engineers.

What is Civil Engineering

Civil engineering dealing with civilians at large, caters to the
construction of
buildings
structures
laying of roads
railways & aligning canals
bridges
dams
providing ideal environment for comfortable living after detailed,
fool proof designs & meticulous execution

Civil engineering is that branch of

engineering which aims to provide a
comfortable and safe living for the people.

Shelter, one of the primary needs of man

kind is provided by civil engineers.
the effective planning of water supply and
irrigation systems increases the food production
in a country.
Shelters, apart from just being shelters, have
been constructed by civil engineers to provide
a peaceful & comfortable life.

the engineering marvels of the world, starting from the pyramids to

today's thin shell structures are the results of the development in civil
engineering .
communication links like
Roads
Railways
Bridges etc
with out which development is impossible are fruits of civil engineers
work.
SCOPE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Any disciplines of engineering is a vast field with various specialization.
The major specializations of civil engineering are listed below.
Structural engineering
Geotechnical engineering
Fluid mechanics,
Transportation engineering
Environmental engineering
Irrigation engineering
Surveying, remote sensing

FUNCTIONS OF CIVIL ENGINEER

Civil engineering incorporates activates such
as construction of structures like
buildings
Dams
Bridges
Roads
Railways
Hydraulic structures, water supply and
sanitary engineering

Various functions of a civil engineer

listed below
Investigation
Surveying
Planning
Design
Execution
Research and development

Investigation: the first function of a civil engineer is

to collect the necessary data that is required before
planning a project.
Surveying: the objectives of surveying is to prepare
maps and plans to locate the various structures of
a project on the surface of a earth.
Planning: depending on the results obtained from
investigation and surveying, a civil engineer should
prepare the necessary drawing for the project with
respect to capacity, size and location of its various
components. On the basis of this drawing , a
preliminary estimate should be worked out.

Design: after planning , the safe dimension of the

components required are worked out. With this
dimension a detailed drawing is prepared for various
components and also for the whole structure and a
detailed estimate is also calculated.
Execution: this function deals with the preparation of
schedules for construction activates, floating of tenders,
finalization of contracts, supervision of construction
work, preparation of bills and maintained.
Research and development: in addition to the above
works , a civil engineer has to engage himself in
research and development to achieve economy and to
improve the efficiency to meet the present and future
needs.

INTRODUCTION
The Basic concern of a Civil Engineering is the
Design
Construction
Supervision maintenances of different types of
structure as

buildings

bridges

canals

Tube wells

water tanks

roads

A Key element in field practice is to deal

with different types of materials
This entails drawing detailed specifications
Selecting the materials
Storage
Sampling and testing
Maintaining material inventories etc..
A Study of these aspects of materials and
their applications in construction is very
important for any Civil Engineer.

ROCK : Rock is a natural aggregate of mineral grains

connected by strong and permanent cohesive forces.
(Made up of different minerals and naturally occurring
substances)
SOIL : Soil is a natural aggregate of mineral grains with and
without organic matter, that can be separated by gentle
mechanical means, such as, agitation of water, wind, frost etc..
(soil is formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals)
In reality there is no clear distinction between rock and soil. The
strongest and the most rigid rocks may be Weakened by the
weathering and other agencies and some rocks are as weak as
compressible soil.

Hence, a practicing Engineer must recognize and determine

the significant properties of materials encountered in the
field before selection and design of a particular type of
foundation and its construction.
Study of these materials and their applications in the
construction is very important for any Civil Engineer.
Classification
Properties
Sampling
Testing of materials is important

Classification of Materials
Based on Chemical Composition

Materials

Organic

Inorganic

The organic group contains carbon as the basic element

like timber, plastic, asphalt, bitumen etc.

 The inorganic group contains silicaceous materials( silica

compounds).
1. Siliceous (silica)-Cnsisting of Quartz,sand etc
2. Argillaceous (clay)-Consisting of clay minerals
3. Calcareous (calcium)-Consists of carbonate of lime
Some common building materials are metals such as

Iron & Copper.

Another way of classification of materials is based on their

use.
Solid building materials
1. Stones
2. Bricks
Building materials

- Cement (silicaceous)
- Lime (calcareous)
- Clay (argillaceous)
- Bitumen (organic)

 Finishing materials

- paints
- varnishes
- distemper etc..
Insulating materials

- rock wool
- glass wool
- expanded clays

Materials also classified as

Naturally occurring
- stones
- timber
- metals
Manufactured materials
- plastics
- concrete
- mortars etc..

Properties of Materials
It is very important to have the knowledge of
properties of the building materials.
Material properties are an important parameter
that decide the life and function of the structure
The selection of proper materials for the
engineering purpose would depend on the
following factors.
Availability of the materials
Suitability of the materials
Cost of the materials

The important properties which determine the

suitability of the materials are
Physical
Chemical
Mechanical
Although there are other categories of
properties such as electrical, optical, thermal,
magnetic.

 Building materials can be hard as diamond,

ductile as copper and as elastic as rubber.

Some materials are strong in compression but

weak in tension. ( ex. Concrete)

Physical Properties :
physical properties depend on the type of
materials such as.
Specific gravity : Ratio of weight of materials
to unit volume. (weight of an equal volume of
water under standard condition).

 Density : Mass of the material per unit volume.

(g/cc)
Bulk Density or unit Weight :

Ratio of Total weight including solids voids to

the total volume.
Void ratio :

Ratio of the volume of voids to the volume

of solids
Porosity (n) :

Ratio of the volume of voids to the total

volume.

 Water absorption : The property of the material by virtue

of which it absorbs water from the ambience. This property

is important in the case of stones and bricks etc

Permeability :

the property by which water flows through

the material. ( cm/sec)

Fire Resistance : it is the property of any element of

building construction and is the measure of its ability to

satisfy for a sated period some( or) all of the following
criteria
Resistance to collapse
Resistance to penetration of flame and hot gases
inflammable ability of catching fire
not inflammable - timber

 Thermal properties (or)Capacity: it is the property

of a material to absorb heat mass of material.

a) Heat Capacity: The amount of heat required
to rise the temperature of a unit mass of the
substance by one degree.
b) Thermal conductivity: The amount of heat
transmitted in unit time through unit area over unit
length perpendicular to the direction of heat flow.
When the temperature gradient across the heat
conductivity unit is 1 degree. Ex: iron, copper
c) Thermal resistivity: The reciprocal of the
thermal conductivity and is defined as the time
taken for a unit heat to be transferred under the
above conditions.
Ex: wood

 Corrosion : Gradual destruction of metal or alloy due

to chemical processes such as a radiation.

Durability : it is the property of a material to resist

the action of environmental exposure

the resistance of material to the destruction by
natural agencies.
the better the durability, the less is the
maintenance cost
Soundness : The resistance of material to its

deterioration due to -heat

- alternate freezing and thawing.
It is important in the case of cement, aggregates
etc

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
These prporties are associated with the ability of the
materials to resist forces and loads.

Elasticity: it is the property of the material where by

it tends to regain it shape after the removal of an
applied load.
Elasticity depends upon magnitude of load
Plasticity : It is the property of a material where by it

retains a change in shape (or) size after.

Toughness : It is the property of a material where by it

absorbs energy due to straining actions by undergoing

plastic deformation.

 Resilience : The ability of a material to recover its size and form after the

deformation.
Hardness : it is the ability of material to resist penetration by a harder

body.
The resistance offered by any material to indentation scratching cutting or
wear by abrasion.
Brittleness : these materials offer very poor resistance to bending ,

impact and tension , such materials fails suddenly under pressure

without appreciable deformation preceding the failure
Ex: glass, concrete and ceramic .
The tendency of a material to shatter on receiving a shock.
Ductility : The capacity to under go large plastic deformation before actual

failure. This property allows the drawing of the wire of a metal.

Fatigue : fatigue is process of progressive and permanent material

damage under repeated loading. Fatigue failure takes place under the
influence of repetitive( or) cyclic load
the failure of a material by cracking resulting from repeated straining action.

 Creep : The property where by a material under goes deformation with

respect to tome under a constant load.

when building material is subjected to a continuous load, it will under go
a slow and permanent deformation called creep Ex: concrete
Abrasive resistance : It is the ability of the material to resist wearing due to

contact with another surface moving with respect to it. This is important in
road surfaces, ware house floors etc.
Impact Strength : ( is a combination of toughness & strength of a material,

it is infact the toughness of the material)

it refers to the ability of material to withstand shock.
Strength Properties :strength it is the ability of material to resist failure

under the action of stresses caused by a compression, tensile (or)

bending load.
it is the ultimate load per unit area. The building material are not allowed
to exceed the stress by a certain % of the ultimate strength. This factor
called factor of safety is thus the ratio of ultimate stress to safe stress
a) Tensile Strength : the maximum stress a material can with stand under
the tensile loading before failure.

b) Compressive Strength : the maximum stress a

material at failure can withstand under a compressive
load.
c) Shear Strength : The maximum stress at failure under
a shearing load.
Sampling & testing : The sampling procedures are in

various codes of practice for testing and special codes for

sampling.
Source of information :

text books
reference books, hand books
IS codes ( published by Bureau of Indian Standards)
Manufacturers catalogues
various Journals and Magazines ( Latest Development)

Inside of Earth
The earth, our homeland, is a dynamic

planet.
Its constantly undergoing changes inside
and outside.

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

Just like an onion, the earth is made up

of several concentric layers with one inside
the other.

 The upper most layer over the earths surface

is called the crust.

Crust is the thinnest of all the layers, its
thickness is about 35 km on the continental
masses and only 5 km on the ocean floors.
The main mineral constituents of the
continental masses are silica and alumina.
Thus it is called Sial (Si Silica &
Al Alumina).
The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and
magnesium. It is therefore called Sima ( Si
Silica &
Ma Magnesium).

Continental Crust & Oceanic Crust

 Just beneath the crust is the mantle, which

extends up to a depth of 2900 km below the

crust.
The innermost layer is the core with a radius
of about 3500 km.. It is made up of Nickel &
Iron and is called Nife (Ni Nickel & Fe
Ferrous i.e., Iron).
The central core has very high temperature &
pressure.
The crust forms 0.5% of the volume of the
earth. 16% consists of the Mantle and 83%
makes the core.
The radius of earth is 6371 km..

Rocks & Minerals

The earths crust is made up of various types of rocks.
Any natural mass of mineral matter that make up the earth

crust is called a rock.

Rock can be of different colors, sizes and textures.
The geologic process acting on the earths crust takes long
time.
Geologic theories are organized around a framework known as
the Geologic Cycle.
Three major types of Rocks :

1) Igneous Rocks Latin word - Ignis (meaning Fire).

2) Sedimentary Rocks Latin word Sedimentum
(meaning settle down).
3) Metamorphic Rocks Greek Word Metamorphose
( meaning change of form).

Igneous rocks :
When the molten magma cools, it
becomes solid. Rocks thus formed are called
Igneous rocks. They are also called Primary
rocks.

There are two types of Igneous rocks. They

are Intrusive and Extrusive Rocks.

 When this molten magma comes on the

earths surface, it rapidly cools down and

becomes solid. Rocks formed in such way on
the crust are called extrusive igneous rocks.
They have very fine grained structure. Ex:
Basalt.
The Deccan plateau is made up of basalt
rocks.

 Sometimes the molten magma cools down

deep inside the earths crust. Solid rocks so

formed called the Intrusive Igneous Rocks.
Since they cool down slowly they form lage
grains.
Granite is an example of such rocks.
Granite stones used to prepare paste/powder
of spices and grains are made of granite.
Sedimentary rocks :
Rocks roll down, cracks and hit each other and
are broken down in to small fragments. These
small praticles are called sediments.

 These sediments are transported and deposited by

wind, water etc. these loose sediments are

compressed and hardened to form layers of rocks.
These types of rocks are called sedimentary rocks.
Ex: Sandstone is made from grains of sand.
These rocks may also contain fossils of plants,
animals and other micro organisms that once lived
on them.
Metamorphic Rocks :
Igneous & Sedimentary Rocks can change into
Metamorphic rocks under great heat & pressure.
Ex: Clay changes into slate, limestone into
marble.

 Red fort is made of red sandstone.

Taj Mahal is made of White marble.

 Hard rocks are used for making roads, houses

and buildings.
You will be surprised to know that one type of
rock changes to another type under certain
conditions in a cyclic manner.
This process of transformation of rock from one
to another is known as the rock cycle.
You have already learnt when the molten
magma cools, it solidifies to become Igneous
rock. These igneous rocks broken down into
small particles that are transported to form
sedimentary rocks.
When the IR & SR are subjected to heat and
pressure they change into metamorphic rocks.

 The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and

pressure meltdown to form molten magma. This molten

magma again can cool down and solidify into IR.
Rock Cycle

 Rocks are made up of different minerals.

Minerals are naturally occurring substances

which have certain physical properties &
definite chemical composition.
Minerals are very important to mankind. Some
are used as fuels.
They are also used in industries like Iron,
aluminum, gold, uranium etc., in medicine, in
fertilizers etc.
After cooling magma, the surface of the earth
becomes hard. Natural weathering agents
start acting on the surface of the earth. Due to
which wear and tear takes place.

BUIDING STONES
Stones have been used since older days for the
construction of

buildings,

bridges and other things.

Now a days also stones are widely used, the utility
of stones as construction materials has not yet
reduced even after the discovery of new materials.
In many places, as in hilly regions, stones are more
freely available than clay bricks.
They occur naturally and need not be
manufactured. So, the stone masonry becomes
cheaper than brick works.

From early days, even before the bricks were invented by the
humans, stones were used to
build dwellings.
Old roads with heavy traffic were also paved with stones.
They were used for ornamental works in important structures like

temples

places of assembly.
Stones are more permanent than most of the other natural
building materials like wood.
Most of the pre-historic monuments that remain even today
are made of stones.
Stones were preferred before the advent of concrete for the
heavy engineering constructions like

bridge piers,

harbour walls,

seaside walls and they are still used for facing work for tall
buildings.

 In many structures as in foundations of

ordinary buildings which are liable to be

flooded, the stone work is used instead of
brick work. Submerged bricks usually
breakdown with time but the stone work
remains stable.
Today stones from an important source of
aggregates, both coarse & fine, for concrete.
Thus stone is an important building material
that all civil engineers should be familiar with.

 Stones are mainly used for :

construction of houses, dams.

foundation walls, arches, dams,

abutments etc.

for flooring

as coarse aggregate in Cement concrete

for facings of building to improve

appearance.

for making lime

Marble ( beautiful appearance, mosques,

temples.)

CLASSIFICATION OF STONES/ROCKS
The stones we use for masonry construction

must be
1. Hard
2. Durable
3. Tough
4. Sound
. Stones must be free from weathering. Soft

patches on material, cracks and other detects

which may reduce the strength & durability.

 Stones for building purposes must be obtained

by quarrying from solid massive rocks and not

by breaking boulders.
The major classification of rocks are discussed
here:

Geological classification :
Igneous Rocks : They are formed by cooling
of molten lava released during a volcanic
activity.
These stones are very strong and durable.
Many of the temples of Southern India are made
of Igneous rocks.

Geological cycle

 There are types of formations of these rocks.

1. They can be formed by volcanic action where it

solidifies above the earth. Ex: Basalt, Andesite, Trap &

Rhyolite.
2. They can solidify far below the earths
surface(plutonic) and then exposed by erosion.
It takes longtime in cooling and hence the size of the
crystal analyze.
Ex: Granite, Diorite & Gabbro.
3. They can result from major intrusion dykes and sils.
Ex: Quartz, Dolerite, Gneiss.
Gneiss is identified by elongated platy mineral grains
often in the presence of Mica.
The engineering properties of weathered IR are less
desirable because the rock is changing into a more
soli like material.

There are many weathering processes including,

The erosive action of water, ice and wind.
Chemical reactions include by exposure to oxygen, water
and chemicals.
Opening of rocks as a result of unloading due to erosion of
the overlying soil and rocks.
Loosening through the growth of the plant roots.
Loosening through the percolation and subsequent
freezing( on expansion) of water.
Growth of minerals in cracks, which forces them to open
further.
Thermal expansion and contraction from day to day and
season to season.
Land slides and rock falls.
Abrasion from the downhill movement of near by rock and
soil.

The rock passes through various stages of weathering,

eventually being broken down into small particles, the
material we call soil.
These soil particles may remain in place forming a
residual soil or they may be transported away from
their parent rock trough processes.
An accumulation of fallen rock fragments called Talus.
Weathering process continue even after the rock
becomes a soil as soil become older, they change doe
to continued weathering . The rate of change depends
on many factors including.
a. The general climate, especially precipitation and
temperature.
b. The physical and chemical make up of soil.
c. The elevation and slope of the ground surface.

d. The depth of water table.

e. The type and extent of flora & fauna.

The presence of micro organisms.

g. The drainage characteristics of the soil.
f.

Sedimentary rocks :
They are formed by sedimentation in water
followed by Intense pressure which converts
the sediments into rocks.
Ex: Limestone, Dolamite & sandstone.

These rocks can again be subdivided into three sections

from the point of view of origin of the particles.
1. Mechanical method : Rocks lying on the earth are
transported from one place to other place by water
after weathering.
Ex: Conglomerate, Sandstone, clay.
2. Chemical method : Rocks on the earth after
weathering, dissolve in water slowly precipitation of
insoluble salts starts taking places due to the
lowering of the temperature of water.
Ex: Limestone, Dolomite, Gypsum.
3. Organic method : Rocks which are formed by the
action of animals and plants or formed out their
detrited remains are called organically formed SR.
Ex: Peat, Ignite, Limestone.

Metamorphic rocks :
Metamorphic rocks are originally Igneous Rocks
or Sedimentary rocks which have changed due to
either pressure or heat or both.
Ex: Slate, marbles.
If IR is basalt the schist is formed.
Schist is also MR which is formed due to high pressure
slate is used for roofing purpose.
The following are some of the changes that can
happen by this action.
a. Sandstone into quartzite
b. Limestone into marble
c. Shale into slate
d. Ganite can change into gneiss under heat and
pressure

Physical and Chemical Classification

From the physical point of view classification of rocks can
be done in the following.
1. Stratified rocks: have many strata. Ex: slate.
2. Unstratified rocks: rocks may or may not be granular. Ex:
granite(granular), oxidatine( non-granular).
The metamorphic process generally improve the engineering
behavior of the rocks by increasing theit hardness and
strength. Nevertheless some MR still can be problematic.
3. Foliated rocks: ( like the leaves of a book ). Tendency to split
up in a definite direction.
Slate derived principally from shale, dense can be readily
split into the thin sheets parallel to the foliation.
Schist is strongly foliated rock with a large Mica content.
Gneiss pronounced nice derived from granite and similar
rocks contains banded foialtion.

Non Foliated Rocks :

Quartzite: composed principally or entirely of
quartz derived from sandstone very strong and
hard.
Marble: derived from limestone or dolomite used
for decorative purpose and for statues.
Unweathered non-foliated rocks: generally provides
excellent support for engineering works.

Classification of rocks based on constituents :

Chemical classification of rocks.
1. Siliceous
2. Argillaceous
3. Calcareous

Siliceous : Consisting of quartz, sand.

Ex: basalt, trap, gabbro
Argillaceous : Consisting of clay minerals.
Ex: slate, laterite, schist
Calcareous : Consisting of carbonate of lime.
Ex: Limestone, comglomerate

Common building stones and their uses

A study of rock forming minerals belongs to geology.
We will deal only with various types of stones.
As already stated, stones, depending on the type, can

be used in buildings for masonry, flooring, roofing,

paving roads as well as aggregates for concrete.

 We should have enough knowledge of geology to indentify

rocks from their appearance and texture.

Some of the common type of stones found in India and their
uses are as follows.
Granite(IR): It is used for heavy engineering works for
bridge piers,
columns,
retaining walls,
random rubble,
foundations,
dressed stone work and for coarse aggregate in concrete.
They can also be cut into slabs and polished to be used as
floor slabs and stone facing slabs.
Basalt(IR): They have the same use as granite. Deccan trap
is a well known stone of this group in Southern India.

 Gneiss(MR): it is used in the same way as granite. It

can be identified by its elongated platy mineral

often mixed with Mica.
Quartzite(MR): It is also used in the same way as
granite. But it is not used for ornamental work as it
is brittle.
Marble(MR): It is used for ornamentation. Flooring
and stone facing slabs.
Slate(MR): it is used for damp proofing flooring and
roofing.
Limestone(SR): It is used for walls as coarse
aggregate for concrete and also a base material for
cement.
Sandstone(SR): they are used for ornamental work
and paving.

 Laterite(Decomposed from IR): it can occur in

hard and soft varieties. The soft variety is

used for walls after curing. While the hard
variety is used for paving the pathways. They
can also be formed as sedimentary rocks
when it is called secondary laterites.

Uses of stones for masonry &

flooring
Type of work

Stones used

Heavy engineering works such as

building bridge piers, break
waters, monuments.

Fine grained Granite and Gneiss.

Masonry work in industrial areas

exposed to smoke and fumes.

Granite, Quartzite and compact

Sandstone.

Facing work of buildings.

Marble, Granite, Sandstone.

General building works.

Limestone and Sandstone.

Carving and ornamental works.

Fine grained Granite, Marble and

soft Sandstone.

Fire resistant masonry.

Compact Limestone and

Sandstone.

Floor Paving.

Marble, Slate, Sandstone and

Granite.

In foundations of buildings in
places with high ground water
level.

Granite, Quartzite.

Characteristics of good stones and

their tests
Characteristics to be considered in selection of stones:
Structure of stone: stones have chiefly three types of
structures
1) unstratified(IR) 2) stratified (SR) 3)
foliated (MR)
IR: - thickness is irregular, structure is granular
SR: -mostly stratified, so many layers depending up on the
composition of rock, these layers can be see with naked eyes
-Initial stages these layers must have remained horizontal
but later they become curved and irregular
MR: is foliated, the arrangement of minerals is parallel in such
type of rocks
Texture of rock: - composition and arrangement of particles in
a rock is called texture of rock. Texture of rock must be
uniform if it is to used for construction.

a. Granite texture : Crystals of such are very

compact and remain fused together.

Sometimes the crystals are so fine that they
can be seen only through a microscope.
b. Compact granular texture : Different types of
particles are fused together in such a way
that stone becomes very compact.
Ex: Marble, Quartz.
c. Granular texture : Each is joined by some
binding material.
Ex: sandstone has granular texture.
d. Porphyritic texture : Some crystals are much
larger in size as compared to other crystals.

e. Pegmatite texture : Two constituents of stone

develop simultaneously as if they are two big

crystals.
f. Cellular texture : There are spherical or irregular
cavities on stone.
g. Foliated texture : Minerals remain in parallel
layers in stone.
Fracture : After breaking the stone, the broken
surface of the rock is called fracture of a rock.
They are of many types.
h. Irregular fracture : If fracture is irregular, coarse
and somewhere deep and somewhere high, then
it is called irregular fracture.
Ex: Granular stones.

b. Regular fracture : If the surface of rock after

breaking is flat and plain then it is called a regular

fracture.
c. Conchoidal fracture : when the broken surface
presents a curved shell like appearance and the
surface is cavy or wavy it is called conchoidal
fracture. Such fractures occur in fused textural rock.
d. Fibrous fracture : If the surface of rock after
breaking is fibrous then it is called fibrous fracture.
Ex: Asbestos.
Specific gravity and weight of stone :
Specific gravity determines the weight of the
stones. Specific gravity of a compact stone is more
and hence weight is more.

 Heavy stones are used for the construction of

docks, horbours, dams, abutments and other

marine works.
Light stones are used for the building
construction, arch work and jali work.
Specific gravity of natural building stones for
construction purposes is calculated as below.
Apparatus required : Analytical balance and
weights, 50 ml Specific gravity bottle with
capillary tube stopper, thermometer, drying
oven, weighing bottle and desicator.

Procedure :
1. Place 50 gm of sample in weighing bottle and
dry to a constant weight at 105 to 110 degrees
Celsius and cool in a desicator.
W1 = Wt of SG bottle + Stopper dried constant
wt.
2. Remove the stopper of specific gravity bottle
and introduce about 15 gm of dried stone
powder from the weighing bottle into the S.G
bottle. Let W2 = wt of SG bottle + sample.
3. Remove the stopper of SG bottle and pour
distilled water up to mark about 3/4 th its
volume.
Let W3 = the wt of SG bottle + sample + water

4. Empty the SG bottle and fill with water and weigh

at room temperature.
Let W4 = the wt of SG bottle + water up to mark.
SG at room temperature
(W2 W1)
(W4 W1) (W3 W2)
. The true SG is expressed as a numerical value

and is taken as the average of three

determinations.
. Specific gravity of stones depend upon its
composition and compaction and may vary from
2.3 to 3.0

Strength of stone
Igneous rocks are stronger than sedimentary rocks.
Granular stones are stronger than other stones.
Stone is too strong for ordinary building construction and no

tests are necessary.

While constructing
bridges,
dams,
docks and harbors' the strength must be tested because
huge amounts of load is transferred from the structures to
stones.
Mainly three types of tests are conducted on stones.
1. Compressive strength test
2. Transverse strength test
3. Shear strength test

1. Compressive strength test :

Test sample of stone may be

square,
prismatic,
cubic or cylindrical. Sample is taken out by core drilling.
Sample can also be made by sawing.
. The diameter of the sample or length in lateral
direction should be 45 cm.
. Ratio b/w height and diameter should not be less
than 1
. The surface of the sample must be very smooth.
. Three such samples should be prepared and should
be kept under water for 24 hrs.
. The temperature of water should be b/w 20 to 30
degrees Celsius.

 After soaking sample should be kept in the

testing machine and axial force is applied

from the top.
Load should be applied uniformly on the
sample and its rate should be 140
kg/sq.cm/min.

Compressive strength of different

types of stones are given below
Name of stone

Compressive
strength
(kg/sq.cm)

Granite

770 to 1300

Syenite

870 to 1530

Diorite

870 to 1530

Basalt

1525 to 1890

Trap

3270 to 3825

Sandstone

650

Late rite

18 to 32

Limestone

540

Gneiss

2190 to 3720

Slate

770 TO 2100

 Crushing strength for most of the building

stones should be more than 1000 kg/sq.cm

(or) 100 N/sq.mm

2. Transverse strength test : Size of sample for

.
.
.

.
.

this should be 10x5x5 cm. at least three

samples are necessary for the test.
Samples must be dipped in water before test.
The direction of natural bed o stone should
be marked.
The sample should be kept on two selfaligning bearings whose diameter is 4 cm and
distance b/w is 15 cm.
The load is applied from the top in the center.
Load is applied at the rate of 210
kg/sq.cm/min. through bearer, 4 cm in dia.

3. Shear strength test : Shear strength test is done by

.
.
.
.

Johnson shear tool or Dulton punching shear.

The sample is in the form of a bar having dimensions
5x5x(not less than 18) cm for johnson shear tool.
After keeping the sample in the machine it is
centered.
Rate of loading should be such that the speed of
moving load is not less than 0.1 cm/min.
The shear strength is equal to the maximum load
divided by twice area of center section of sample.
shear strength = (

maximum load

)
( 2 x area of center section of
sample)

 In dulton punching shear, spherical block of

stone is used for testing. Sample is kept in b/w

two plates of the device. The upper plate is
brought down very carefully so that it comes
in contact with stone sample. Load is applied
through plunger.

Facility of dressing : carving the jali work can

be done very easily on the soft stones.
Ex: sandstone, limestone, marble.

Compactness of stone : compact and solid

stones are more durable and strong.

Fineness of grains : carving and jali works can be

done nicely on fine grained stones. Fine grained
stones are stronger than coarse grained stones.
Hardness and toughness : Abrasive resistance in a
stone is due to hardness.
If the stone is used for making floor construction of
bridges, docks etc., then wear & tear of stone will
be more. Hence, hard stone should be used in these
places.
Use of tough stone is desirable for dynamic load (or)
vibratory load.
Hardness is determined by mohs scale of hardness.
Abrasion test is done to determine the value of
abrasion. Very strong stone is required for roads
because there is very high friction on it.

Absorption and Porosity : Porosity depends up

on the number of pores in the stone. Porous
stones are not good for construction works.
If pores are large and many in number then
permeability of water will also be more.
Decomposition and disintegration of porous
stone takes place soon.
The amount of absorption of water by stone
should be limited.
If the amount of absorption is more then the
stone should not be used for construction.

 A good quality stone absorbs water of < 5%

A stone is rejected if the water absorption is > 15%
Good quality building stone must not contain any soluble salts.

Weathering :decomposition and disintegration of stones take place

due to
atmospheric agents
Physical and
Chemical changes this process is known as weathering.
Weathering takes place due to following causes:
a. Alternating heating and cooling/deterioration of stones:
Stones get heated in the day due to-- sun and hence expansion
of stones takes place.
In the night due to-- cold, contraction of stones takes place.
Due this process of continuous alternate expansion and
contraction of rock, it disintegrates.

b. Alternate wetting and drying: Stones get wet due to

rain,
dew and snow and
dry due to sun. this alternate wetting and drying goes
on and hence wear and tear of stones takes place.
Due to this weathering of external portion of stones
takes place.
c. Air: Moisture goes in to the pores of stone. Due to
strong wind. Wind carries dust particles. Organic
materials also along with moisture, which has a bad
effect on the external surface of stone.
d. Rain: Atmospheric carbondioxide gets dissolved in
water at the time of rain. This rain water effects the
limestone badly.
Hydrogen Chloride, Sulphur, Hydrogen Sulphide etc.,
get dissolved in water.

Industrial areas in rainy season consequently rain

water starts behaving as dilute acid and reacts with
calcium carbonate of stone in the form of black spots.
e. Movement of chemicals: If limestone and sandstone
are very near then some chemicals from limestone
after reacting with atmospheric gas may enter into
sandstone, consequently disintegration of sandstone
takes place.
f. Growth of vegetation: Roots of trees or creepers enter
the joints of stone due to which stones disintegrate.
g. Position of stone in any construction work: if the
compressive strength of stone is high then it is used for
the foundation works.
Light stones should be used in the decoration works.
In stone masonry stones are placed that the direction
of pressure acts at right angles to the plane of
bedding

h. Frost: weather during which dew is deposited as ice.

All water which has gone into the pores of stone

become ice due ton intense cold. When water turns into
ice, ice expands, its volume increases. This exerts
pressure on stone particles. Hence disintegration of
stones takes place. Frost is of importance only in
mountainous regions of India.
Durability : durability is essential in stones to neutralize the
bad effect of atmosphere or other agents.
A stone with good weathering quality is often durable.
Durability if stone depends up on chemical composition,
structure and weathering quality.
If there is potassium, feldspar etc., in the stone, then is
weak.
Disintegration of stones takes place due to the Iron
pyrites.

Seasoning: Stone contains some moisture when it is

fresh from quarry. It is called quarry sap.
Stones become soft due to moisture. Hence,
carving and dressing of stone should be done
immediately after quarrying.
After seasonings, stones should be used for
construction.
All this moisture goes out due to seasoning and
hardness of stone increases.
Seasoning is essential before using it for the
construction work otherwise disintegration will
take place.
Stones should be left in open air for seasoning but
there must be a roof over it. So that rain water
may not enter into stone.

 Moisture of the stone will evaporate due to

circulation of air. Dry particles come out when

thoroughly seasoned stone is cut by a chisel.
Appearance : is very important for stones used for
decorative works and the facing wall of building.
stone is of great importance from the point of
architecture. Outer portion of the building stone
must be very beautiful.
It depends up on the colour, dressing and polish.
Soft stone is good for decoration work because
carving can be done nicely.
In general, sedimentary rocks are of dark colour
because of iron oxide in them. These colors will
become dim slowly due to atmospheric action.

 Hence, use of light colored stones is desirable

because dumness of colour in light colored

stones cannot be differentiated soon.
Fire resistance: Disintegration of stones takes
place due to following causes in case of fire.
i. The coefficient of expansion of different
minerals of stones are different. Due to rise of
temperature different minerals expand
differently.
ii. Difference in the temperature rise b/w both
ends of stones.
iii. Cooling of stone due to cold water.
iv. Low heat conductivity of stones.

Quarrying of stones
Good stones are obtained by quarrying from solid rock
formations and not from loose boulders.
Boulders and weathered blocks of stones are not fit for
important constrictions
Taking out of stone from the natural rock by any method is
known as quarrying.
Normally, open quarrying is done for extraction of stones.
If quarrying is very deep, then it is difficult to take out
broken stone from quarry.
Hence, quarry should be done from one side.
With increase in depth, inclined passage should be
constructed so that trucks can be transport the broken
stones.

 Quarry should be started from that portion

where rock is completely exposed.

Methods of Quarrying :
Selection of method depends up on the type
of rocks and other.
1. Digging
2. Splitting
3. Wedging
4. Blasting

1. Digging :

2.
.

.
.
.
.

Small pieces of stones are extracted by digging.

They are Brocken by pick axe and taken out by
crow bar.
Splitting :
Splitting is essential for extracting hard and tough
stones. Because large blocks of stones can be
extracted only by splitting.
Splitting of stone can be done by heating the
stone.
Large pieces of stones can be split by heating.
Heating is often done to get stones of regular size.
If the natural bed of stone is horizontal and if its
thickness is small then stones can be split soon by
heating.

 Wood, leaves or other types of fuel is kept on the

surface of the stone and burnt for few hours.

Due to unequal expansion, stone cracks making little
sound. Stones are found in forest and it is easy to
collect leaves and stones in forest.
Granite and gneiss is extracted by this method in
Madurai and Coimbatore districts.
3. Splitting by Wedge : There are small fissures in

stones. Fissures may be in vertical or any other

directions.
. Stone is weak near the fissure.
. If a blunt steel wedge is driven in to the fissure by
hammer then the fissure becomes large.
. After that the stone block is separated by crow bar.

4. Blasting : Breaking of stone by explosives is known

as blasting.
First a hole is drilled in rock (rotary drilling).
After drilling, explosives are filled in the hole and it is
fired.
Blasting powder, dynamite, gun cotton, cordite,
gelatin dynamite, gelignite, detonator.
Sorting of stones : It is essential to sort stones after
explosion.
At first stones were used for beams, columns, and
lintels are sorted out because their sizes are large.
Stones for ashlars masonry and arch works are
smaller in size which are again separated.
Smaller particles of stones are used for aggregates for
cement concrete or as road or ballast, should be
separated.

Dressing of Stones : Main aim of dressing stones are as

follows.
a. To increase the beauty of stone.
b. To make joints b/w two stones very thin so that
expenditure of mortar is reduced.
c. Stone pieces may be given required shape so that it
can be used in arch.
. When the stones are dressed finely and the joint b/w
them are very thin then it is called ashlars masonry.
. Stones of regular sizes are necessary for ashlars
masonry so that specific pattern can be given to the
joints.
. Dressing is of different types and various types of
appearances can be given to the stone blocks by
chisel and hammer.

Sawing and polishing of stones :

Lime stones and marbles are soft stones and
hence these can be swan.
The blade of saw is made of cast steel but
with teeth.
Sometimes, even granite can also be sawn.
Granite, trap, marble can be very easily
polished.

Physical tests on stones

Building stones are to be tested for the
following tests.
1. Absorption test
2. Smiths test
3. Toughness test
4. Mohs scale of hardness test
5. Acid test
6. Crystallization test
7. Attrition test
8. Crushing test

9.
10.
11.
12.

Freezing & thawing test ( for cold countries)

Hardness test
Impact test
Microscopic test

The tests 1 to 6 are simple tests, that can be

carried out in the field and are usually made

on building stones.
The tests 7 to 12 are carried out in laboratory
and are often performed to find suitable
coarse aggregates for concrete.

Simple field tests:

1. Absorption test : this is a simple test that should be
done on all the stones. It consists of keeping a
sample of rock of about 50 gm in a distilled water
and finding the water absorption in 24 hrs. it should
not exceed 0.6%.
2. Smiths test : this test is to determine the
deterioration of stones when immersed in water.
A sample of the stone is placed in the distilled water
in a glass vessel and vigorously stirred. It is kept in
the water for at least 24 hrs. If the water turns
muddy, then the stone contains earthy substances.
Some very consolidated sands which look like
sandstones simply slump under water in this test.
We should ensure that all stones under water we
use, pass this test.

3. Toughness test : Hit the stone with a hammer

and find how tough it is to break it with the

hammer.
4. Mohs scale of hardness test : one simple way
of describing strength of stones is in terms of
hardness of the surface.
We scratch the stone with a penknife and
classify hardness by Mohs scale of hardness.
It is based on the relative abrasiveness of
minerals.
The softest being talc and hardest is
diamond.
. Schmidt rebound hammer test is used more
than moths hardness test.

The scale is divided into 10 scale as shown below.

5. Acid test : This is to test presence of poorly

.

6.

weathering calcium carbonates in the sandstone.

The test consists of placing a cube of the stone
weighing about 50 to 100 gm in 1% Hydrochloric
acid for 7 days.
A good building stone should be free from powder
formation on the surface of the cube and the
sharp edges should not be broken up after the
above immersion.
Crystallization test : this test consists in
immersing a sample of stone (cubes if say 40
mm) in 14% sodium sulphate solution for 2 hrs
and then dry it in oven at 100 degrees Celsius.
The procedure is repeated for at least 5 times.

 The loss of weight and the presence of cracks are

noted.
There should not be any visible defect formed
and the loss in weight should be minimal.
Laboratory tests :
7. Attrition test : This is carried out in a Deval

testing machine or preferably the Los angeles

abrasion test machine for this purpose.
. Steel or cast iron sphere of 48 mm dia and 390
to 445 gm wt.. The machine is rotated for
specific revolutions depends on the grading(500
to 1000 revolutions).

val attrition testing machine

Los Angeles abras

testing mac

8. Crushing test : This test consists of finding

the compressive strength of a stone cube 40

mm in size in a compression testing machine.
The rate of loading used is 140 kg/sq.cm/min.
9. Freezing & Thawing test : This test is
applicable to the regions where temperature
can go below freezing point.
. It consists of keeping a specimen of the stone
in water for 24 hrs and then freezing it at -12 o
C for 24 hrs.
. It is then thawed. This is repeated at least 7
times after which the specimen are carefully
examined for any damage.

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10. Hardness test : This testis different from attrition

test.
Here we use the Dorrys testing machine.

. A cylinder of 25 mm of rock is rubbed against the

steel disc sprinkled with coarse sand. A pressure

of 1.25 kg is applied of the specimen. After 1000
revolutions, the loss in the weight is determined.
. Coefficient of hardness = (20 loss of wt in gm)/3.

11. Impact test : this test is for aggregate in concrete

that undergoes impact as in runways in airports.

. Material passing through 12.5 mm and retained as
10 mm are filled in the standard cylinder in 3
layers, each layer tamped with 25 strokes of an
iron rod.
. A hammer weighing 14 kg is dropped from a
height of 380 mm for 15 times and the resulting
material is sieved through a 2.36 mm IS sieve.
The percentage fines is the aggregate impact test
value.
. It should not be more than 45% for aggregate for
concrete for ordinary use and not more than 30%
for aggregate for concrete for runways and
pavements.

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12. Microscopic test : In this test, thin sections of the

stone are taken and placed under the

microscope to study the grain size, mineral
constituents and presence of harmful materials.
Textural classification of rocks :
13. Textural classification of igneous rocks: it based
on the mineralogy and mode of occurrence.
. Both the mineral content and the grain size tend
to be an indication of the rate of cooling.
. These various rock forming minerals can be
grouped into feldspars, silica minerals, mica etc.

 The modes of occurrence are as follows

i.
ii.
iii.
2.
.

Volcanic or extrusive like basalt.

Plutonic (cooled below the depth) like
granite.
Minor intrusive (formed as dykes and sills
etc) like dolerite.
Textural classification of SRs: it is based in
the formation of rocks.
Whether they are mechanical sediments like
sandstone and quartzite. Chemical
precipitate like stone and dolomite.

The further textural classification of the SRs are as

follows.
Clastier (composed of previously existing solid
matter) and also called granular, like sandstone.
Crystaline like limestone and dolomite.
Biotregments (of biological origin) like coal and
limestone.
Textural classification of MRs :
It is based on its grouping into the following three
groups.
i. Granular like marble
ii. Branded like gneiss with platy and elongated grains
iii. Foliated (shaped like leaves) as in schist, slate etc.

BRICKS

BRICKS
Bricks have been used for all types of construction

from the olden days.

Usefulness of brick has not reduced even though
better materials like cement, steel and other
materials have already came into use.
It is known that bricks are made from soil (clay).
Hence the properties of the brick depends on the
soil properties.
Good quality brick cannot be made from all types
of soils.
Analysis of soil to be used in manufacture of brick
can be divided in to 3 parts.

Composition of good brick earth

Constituents of a Brick
Alumina
Chief constituent of all kinds of clay
Imparts plasticity to clay so that it can be moulded
A good brick should have 20-30% of alumina
If in excess, it makes the brick warp and crack on drying

and burning
Silica/sand
A good brick earth should contain about 50-60% of

silica
It imparts uniform shape to bricks
Its presence prevents cracking, shrinking and warping

of raw bricks
The durability depends on proper proportion of silica
Its excess destroys cohesion between particles and
makes the brick brittle

Lime
It should be present in very small quantities not exceeding

5%
It helps in fusing sand(alone infusible) which then acts as
cementing material for brick particles.
It should be very finely powdered else on burning the lumps
will convert to quicklime which expands in presence of
moisture resulting in splitting of bricks.
The excess of lime causes the brick to melt and loose its
shape
Oxide of iron
It is added in small quantity 5-6%
It helps fuse sand
Imparts red color to brick on burning

Magnesia
A small amount of MgO imparts yellow color to the brick
It decreases shrinkage
Its excess leads to decay of brick

Chemical analysis
ii. Mineralogical analysis
iii. Physical analysis
i.

Chemical analysis : Chemical composition of soil is found out

by chemical analysis.
. Percentage of
. alumina,
. silica,
. iron oxide,

calcium oxide
Besides this proportion of soluble salts.
Ex: sulphate, chloride, carbonate, nitrate etc. insoluble salts
also found out.
The presence of alkali causes the brick to swell, fuse and warp.
.

 If there is presence of nodular kankar,(a lime stone

containing about 30% of alumina and silica is known

as kankar) it becomes quick lime after burning. As
soon as it comes in contact with water, its volume
increases and breaks into pieces.
If there is little amount of iron oxide its colour
improves.
Magnesium oxide yellowish colour.
The cost of chemical analysis is high. Hence it is not
done in case of he ordinary bricks. But in case of
fire bricks it is essential.
Mineralogical Analysis : Researches have shown that
the property of soil depends upon the clay mineral
present in it.

The diameter of clay mineral is less than 0.002 mm

Type

Dia (mm)

Gravel

>4.75

Sand

4.75 0.075

Silt

0.075 0.002

Clay

<0.002

Kaolinite, illite, mantmorillonite are often found in

soil.
Different types of minerals import different
properties to the brick.
The apparatus required for mineralogical analysis
is very costly for ordinary bricks testing can not be
done.

Physical Analysis : Physical analysis of the soil

can be done very easily at the same time it is
not costly.
Percentage of sand, silt and clay can be
found by physical analysis.
LL, PL and PI of soil also found in the
laboratory.
Very good bricks can be produced if the
possesses
the following Percentage
properties.
Properties
(%)
Clay

20 30

Clay + silt

40 65

LL

25 38

PI

7 16

Volumetric shrinkage

15 25

 Rough test while selecting the site for the

manufacture of bricks.
The properties of soil of different sites will be
different it is necessary to select a site whose
soil will provide good quality of bricks. It is not
possible to test the sample in the laboratory.
Then the following rough test is conducted.
1. Soil and its mixing
2. Moulding property of soil
3. Shrinkage test of soil
4. Determination of strength and quality of

bricks

1. Soil and its mixing :

. Soil samples should be collected from different
.
.
.

places.
Sample should be collected after removing top
layer of soil.
15 kg of soil is normally collected for this
purpose.
This test is very important because quantity of
sand and water to be added for the proper
plasticity can be found out.
If the amount of sand and water required per kg
of soil is known, then total quantity can be found
easily.
Firstly remove all the gravel and stones from the
soil sample and grind the soil to a fine powder.

Manufacture of clay bricks

1. Preparation of brick clay

Unsoiling, Digging , Cleaning, Weathering , Blending ,

Tempering

2. Moulding the bricks

Hand Moulding , Machine Moulding

3. Drying the bricks

Natural , Artificial

4. Burning the bricks

Burning in clamps, Burning in kilns

SITE FOR OBTAINING CLAY/EARTH

DIGGING

Tempering/Kneading of clay with

the help of cattle or men

 After that pour the water slowly in the soil and go on

mixing it so that the soil becomes plastic.

The consistency should be such that it can be molded
easily. Amount of water should not exceed otherwise
moulding becomes difficult.
Take a handful of mixing soil make a ball by pressing it.
If necessary little amount of water is added to it make
it the ball.
Keep the ball under the sun for drying. When the ball
has dried see that whether the ball has lost its shape
or not.
Also examine if there are any cracks on the surface.
The ball which does not get deformed on drying and
has very less cracks on its surface, is most suitable for
manufacture of bricks.

 If the soil is having more sand it can be powdered

easily after drying such soils are not suitable.

The ball which after drying has become very hard
and has wide cracks, shows the deficiency of
sand in soil. Such soils can be used for
manufacture of bricks by adding requisite amount
of sand.
Easy method is add some quantity of sand and
prepare the ball in each case.
Balls with all proportions of sand may be allowed
to dry.
After drying inspect the balls, the ball which has
the least amount of cracks gives the most
suitable proportions of sand.

Moulding properties of sand : if the corners and

edges of the bricks are not well formed then
the mixture contains less quantity of water.
Hence, add some more water in such case
make another brick.
Repeat this process till we get formed bricks
have all molded bricks for drying.
Shrinkage test of soil :
The extent of deformation and shrinkage of
bricks after burning can be determined from
this test.

 Burn the sample brick in the potter kiln for 3 days

and 4 nights.
Bricks should be burnt up to red hot.
Actually the time for burning the brick depends on
the size and shape of the brick.
Bricks should be kept in the kiln in such a way that
some space is left b/w them. This is essential for
proper burning.
After burning of the brick allow the brick to cool ,
then remove from the kiln and examine them for
shrinkage and deformation.
Sort out the brick which have lost their shape.
Those bricks which have shrunk evenly and have
not lost shape should be selected for further tests.

Determination of strength and quality of bricks :

Strike the flat surface of two bricks if the
sound produced is a metallic one then the
bricks are of good quality.
If the sound produced is dull then the bricks
are not of good quality.
Strength of bricks can also be found out by
soaking the same in water.
Soak the bricks in water for 24 hrs.

 Bricks of good quality do not absorb water

more than 1/8th to 1/6th of their own weight.

Compressive strength of good bricks should
not be less than 35 kg/sq.cm

Manufacture of Bricks : There are four processes in the

manufacture of bricks.
1. Preparation of soil
2. Molding of bricks
3. Drying of bricks
4. Burning of bricks
5. Preparation of soil for brick making :
. After the selection of site, grass, roots of trees etc

should be removed from that place.

. If there are any stones and boulders, they should be
thrown away. In fact 10 to 15 cm of top layer should
be completely strapped.
. After that soil dug by means of spade or anything
else.

 The earth is broken in to pieces, the loose earth

is spread out in heaps 1 to 1.5 m high for

weathering. Care should be taken to see that
there are no stone pieces are left in the earth.
2 cubic meter of soil is required for 1000
(20 x 10 x 10 cm) bricks. After monsoon
again the earth is dug out from heaps.
If necessary, sand is also mixed in the powdered
natural soil. After that they are thoroughly
mixed. This process is known as Blending.
After Blending, requisite amount of water should
be added in the soil and the same is kneaded by
feet of men or animal. This process is known as
tempering.

 Amount of water to be added with soil is determined

by test. Quantity of water should not be in excess

otherwise the slope will be reformed after drying.
Tempering must be done very carefully so that the
soil becomes plastic and mixing is uniform.
In large quantity of bricks are to be made , then pug
mill is used for kneading.
Pug mill : (for large kneading)
It consists of a conical upright cylindrical of steel
whose height is 1.5 to 2.0 m. cylinder is normally
tapered and 60 to 75 cm of its depth remains buried
in the ground.
There is a vertical shaft in its center which can
rotate.

 Horizontal blades are fixed to the shaft. There

are many wedge shaped knives in the

horizontal blade which are made of steel.
Pug Mill

 Clay and water are placed in the pug mill from top

and shaft is turned either by bullock or mechanical

power.
The blades goes inside the soil and soil will be
kneaded by knives.
Finally well kneaded soil comes out from the bottom
portion of the pug mill through aperture.
Pug mill works continuously. Kneaded soil is serried
for molding to other place.
2. Moulding of bricks :
. Moulding of bricks can be done by means of

mould.
. Mould is a rectangular box, in which top and
bottom portion remains open.

 Mould is made from strong wood and iron plates

are filled are the edges so that wear and tear of

the mould is very little.
Metallic moulds are superior to wooden moulds.
Mainly mould is made for one brick, but now a
days a new type of mould has also come in
practice. By means of this mould, five bricks can
be moulded at a time.
Size of mould depends up on the size of the
brick. But size of mould in all directions should
be larger by
8 to 10% as compared to
the size of the brick so that effect of shrinkage
due to drying and burning can be compensated.

Hand moulding
Moulds are rectangular boxes of wood or steel,

which are open at top and bottom. Steel moulds

are more durable and used for manufacturing
bricks on large scale as shown in figure.

Bricks prepared by hand moulding are of two types.

a) Ground moulded bricks
b) Table moulded bricks

DIFFERENT MOULDS

GROUND MOULDING

3. Drying of bricks :
. Bricks are dried in the sun after molding.

Bricks after moulding when dried enough to be

handled safety are carried to the drying yard.
. Drying yard must be situated in the yard.

 Stacking is done by keeping the bricks on their

edges. There are 8 to 10 bricks in each row.

There should be enough space between the
rows so that proper circulation of air.
Sometimes roof is provided, so that rain should
not destroy the bricks.
it takes about 8 days for drying of bricks some
times bricks may be artificially dried by hot
gases from kilns.
Bricks are sent for burning after drying.
One should see carefully that bricks have dried
fully otherwise moisture from wet brick may
spoil the surface of the other bricks while
burning.

Newly-formed bricks are dried under

shelters in a natural way.

When the bricks are

almost dry, they are
set vertically in
order to make room
for the next batch
of bricks.

4. Burning of bricks :
. Burning of bricks must be done carefully because

under burnt bricks remain soft. Bricks are burnt in the

kilns.
. Mainly kilns are of 3 types.
i. Pajawa of clamp or open kiln
ii. Semi continuous kiln
iii. Continuous kiln.
iv. Clamp :
. Clamps are of different types and they are made in

different ways in different provinces.

. A temporary clamp has been shown in figure by
means of which 1800 bricks can be burnt.

 Bricks are arranged in clamp in a specified manner.

If the bricks are arranged length wise in one row then the

other are kept on their edges. This order should be

repeated in alternate rows. Bricks should be arranged in
such a way that space for burning fire is left in the middle.
Top most brick is to be kept vey close to each other so
that roof of the clamp is formed. Small holes must be left
in the roof so that fire can burn and may go out.
The outside of the clamp should be covered with a layer of
soil 20 cm thick so that heat may not get wasted.
Dampness from the bricks is expelled after burning of fire
due to heat and consequently bricks shrink. When top
most brick has shrunk, it means that the dampness of the
brick has been driven out.
After that top portion of clamp should be covered with a
layer of soil 2.5 cm thick so that heat does not go waste.

 Bricks are arranged in clamp in a specified manner.

If the bricks are arranged length wise in one row then the

other are kept on their edges. This order should be

repeated in alternate rows. Bricks should be arranged in
such a way that space for burning fire is left in the middle.
Top most brick is to be kept vey close to each other so
that roof of the clamp is formed. Small holes must be left
in the roof so that fire can burn and may go out.
The outside of the clamp should be covered with a layer of
soil 20 cm thick so that heat may not get wasted.
Dampness from the bricks is expelled after burning of fire
due to heat and consequently bricks shrink. When top
most brick has shrunk, it means that the dampness of the
brick has been driven out.
After that top portion of clamp should be covered with a
layer of soil 2.5 cm thick so that heat does not go waste.

Clamp burning
Advantages

(i) The bricks produced are tough and strong because

burning and cooling are gradual
(ii) Burning in clamps proves to be cheap and
economical.
(iii) No skilled labour and supervision are required for
the construction of clamps.
Disadvantages

(i) Bricks are not of required shape

(ii) It is very slow process
(iii) It is not possible to regulate fire in a clamp
(iv) Quality of brick is not uniform

Clamp

A typical clamp is as shown in figure

Firing Process

BTK - Bulls Trench Kiln

VSBK Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln

Traditional indian clay brick kiln

Bulls trench brick kiln

Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln

brick clamp

 It is essential to keep some holes in the roof for

the proper burning.

It takes about 10 days for burning the bricks.
After 10 days the layer of soil may be scratched
to see whether bricks burnt nicely or not.
If the bricks have not burnt well then firing should
be continued. Clamp is allowed to cool firing 15 to
20 % of bricks are wasted in such type of clamp.
Intermittent up-draught clamp :
such type of clamp is in the form of a rectangular
house with thick side walls.
At each end there is a wide door. Bricks can be
taken in or carried out through these doors.

 In case of necessity temporary roof of lighter

materials is also combined so that bricks are

not spoiled due to accidental rain.
The roof is removed as soon as clamp is fired.
The length, breadth and height of such type of
clamp is approximately 1.5, 3.5 and 4.0 m.

Intermittent kiln

Qualities of good brick and their tests :

Bricks of good quality should be used for construction.
Tests are necessary to identify bricks. Tests can be
divided into two groups.
Those tests which can be performed anywhere and
special apparatus is not necessary.
Those tests which can be performed only in the
laboratory.
I group :
1. External appearance
2. Hammer test
3. Hardness test
4. Absorption test
5. Specific gravity
6. Efflorescence

II group :
1. Compressive strength test
2. Weathering test
External appearance :
. The slope of a good brick should be uniform and
regular and their edges must be sharp.
. There should be no cracks, air bubbles, lime
nodules or pebbles in the bricks.
. The degree of burning can be estimated from the
color of brick, although some times color of brick
misleads estimation.
. Surface of brick must be plane but neither it
should be very rough nor very smooth.

 Degree of burning of brick should be neither be

less nor more. Over burnt bricks, known as Jhama

bricks, become useless for construction work. In
fact due to high temperature Jhama brick melts
and hence it loses its shape.
2. Hammer test :
. When well burnt brick (having no cracks) is hit
by hammer, then metallic ringing sound is
produced. Such type of bricks are called 1 st class
bricks.
. If two 1st class bricks are struck against each
other, then they produce metallic ringing sound.
. A 1st class brick will not break if it is dropped
from a height of 2 to 5 m.

Hardness test :
if the surface of a good brick is searched by
the nail of a finger, no mark should be left on
it. Estimation of hardness can also be done
breaking the brick with hammer.
Under burnt brick will break easily where 1 st
class brick will not break easily.
Absorption test :
The amount of absorption of water is a good
indication of the degree of burning of brick.
The brick is immersed in water for 24 hrs. due
to this the weight of brick increases.

 After weighing the wet brick the percentage of

absorption can be found out.

If the percentage of absorption of water is 16%
then these can be used for construction.
% of water absorption of 1 st class brick varies
from 12 to 16%. If the brick is to be used fro
hydraulic work, then percentage of absorption
should be less than 6%.
High % of absorption indicates insufficient
burning.
The permeability of brick is of extreme
importance in case of exterior walls. If the
permeability is high then rain water will
penetrate in to the walls.

Specific gravity :
Other factors being constant, higher the specific gravity
of the brick more is the strength of the brick.
Unit weight of ordinary bricks should be 1600 to 1920
kg/cu.m
Efflorescence :
main cause of decay of bricks is the crystallization of
soluble salts.
Salts are
magnesium sulphate,
calcium sulphate,
sodium and potassium sulphate etc.
Being soluble in water these salts are deposited on the
brick surface as efflorescence as a result of wetting and
drying of the brick by rain and sun by rise and fall of
water table.

Test :
Take distilled water in a shallow vessel and dip
one end of brick in water by about 2.5 m.
If there will be efflorescence then salt will be
deposited on brick otherwise not. Test takes
about 5-7 days.
Use of high lime mortar is practiced for
reducing efflorescence some times damp proof
course is also given.
Compressive strength :
durability of brick can be estimated from the
results of compressive strength. Classification is
also done according to compressive strength.

Weathering test :
weathering test should also be cone in the laboratory to
see its effect on brick.

Defects in bricks :
1. Over burning of bricks : Due to over burning, bricks lose

their shape. These bricks are called Jhama Bricks. These

are unsuitable for building construction.
2. Under burning of bricks : the compressive strength of the
under burnt brick is less and the degrees of absorption of
water is more. Under burnt bricks should not be used.
3. Bloating : swelling of bricks takes place due to the
presence of excess of-----carbonaceous matter and
any gas forming material in the clay
and due to bad burning or very rapid firing.

4. Black core: this defect occurs where clays are

heated for rapidly in the kilns causing the surface to

vitrify and the interior to remain black.
5. Efflorescence : bricks containing a relatively large
proportion of soluble salt, liable to become
discovered by the formation of whitish deposit.
6. Lamination : laminations are caused by air in the
voids of clay. They produce thin lamine on the faces
of bricks which swell off on exposure to weather.
7. Lime nodules : if particles of the stone are left
uncrushed during preparation of clay, then become
lime nodules in bricks. These lime nodules will
expand when water is absorbed thus causing
disintegration of bricks. Wide cracks in walls develop
due to this.

BULLS TRENCH KILN :

Bulls trench kiln is circular or elliptical in plan. A trench is
dug by taking out soil from the ground.
The depth varies from 1.5 to 2.25 m. Bricks are arranged in
the kiln in such a way that some space is left between
them.
These spaces cat as fuel path in the lower portion. Fuel
hoes are provided over the fuel a an interval of 90 cm
through which fuel can be given.
Bulls trench kiln is not loaded at one time but the kiln is
loaded in sections. The length of one section is about 3.6m
A clear space of 15 cm is left between the sections over
which chimney can be placed.
After loading one section with brick, it is covered with ashes
and soil so that heat may not escape.
When brick of one section is being burnt, hot gases enter
into the next section.

BULL'S TRENCH KILN

Bulls trench kiln seen from the loading end

Design of a Bulls trench kiln

A Bulls trench kiln with a fixed chimney

canvas prevents air from entering the kiln from the wrong end

Fired bricks being drawn from the kiln

 In this way preheating of next section takes

place.
At the end smoke goes out in the atmosphere
through chimney.
It takes about 24 hrs in burning the brick
completely. When one section has been burnt
fully, then fire is advanced to next section and
the burnt section is allowed to cool.
In this way process of burning, pre heating and
cooling continues to different sections of the kiln.
When one section is being burnt, another section
is being pre heated and some other section is
being cooled.
This kiln can not work in rainy season.

Hoffmans Kiln :
Hoffmans kiln is circular in plane.
Chimney placed at the center of the kiln and there
are twelve chambers around the chimney. Each
chamber has a gate so that one can communicate
from outside.
Hoffmans kiln can work continuously and hence
hot gas is always utilized. The length, breadth and
height of hoffmans kiln is 11X4.5 X 2.5 m.
About 25000 bricks can be burnt in one chamber.
In this way 3 lakh bricks can be burnt in 12 days.
80-90 lakh bricks can be burnt per year in this kiln.

HOFFMANS KILN

Advantages :
Considerable economy in fuel.
Burning is uniform and there is proper
control of temperature.
Bricks can be sent at construction site in
planned way.
%age of first class bricks is more.

Point of
compariso
n

Continuous (or) semi

continuous kiln

Clamp

Initial cost

The initial cost of Bulls trench

kiln or Hoffmans kiln is higher.
Suitable for big scale of
manufacture of bricks

Low and hence suitable for

burning of small quantity of
bricks

Cost of fuel

Fuel consumption is very low in

such type of kiln because heat
is not wasted.

High, heat is lost from top as

well as sides. Hot gases are
not used.

Control of
fire

There is complete control on

five and even raw bricks can be
burnt after pre heating

There is no control over fire.

At some places temperature
is high and others low.

Supervision

Supervision by skilled labor is

necessary.

Once fixed no supervision is

required.

Time of
burning and
cooling

It takes 24 hrs in burning the

bricks and 12 days in cooling.

Time required is 2 months to

6 months

% of first
class bricks

90% first class bricks can be

obtained from such type of kilns

Not more than 60% are

produced

Qualities of
brick

Quality if all bricks are uniform.

Warping does not take place

Quality of bricks are not

uniform

Uses of bricks :
Bricks are mainly used for the construction
of walls.
Bricks when molded in the shape of a gutter
can be used as drains.
Bricks with cavities known as hollow bricks
can be used for insulation purpose and
because of this light weight they are more
useful in speedy construction.

 Paving bricks prepared from clay containing

high percentage of iron can be used for

pavements, since they resist abrasion in a
better way.
Bricks with the holes are used in multi storied
framed structures.
Sand-lime bricks are used for ornamental work.
Fire bricks made of fire clay can be used as a
refractory material.
Bricks are used in the construction of the
compound walls, columns etc. broken pieces of
bricks are used as in the facing of wall.
Bricks are used in the construction of chimneys
and other special works.

Qualities of good bricks :

Bricks should have perfect edges, well burnt in
kilns, copper colored, free from cracks with proper
rectangular shape and of standard size (19 x 19 x 9
cm)
Bricks should give clear ringing sound when struck
with each other.
Bricks must be homogeneous and free from voids.
The percentage absorption of water by weight
should not be greater than 20% for 1 st class and
22% for 2nd class when soaked in cold water for 24
hrs.
Bricks should be sufficiently hard i.e., no nail
impression must be present when scratched. The
average weight of brick should be 3-3.5 kg.

 Bricks should not break when dropped from

about 1 m.
Bricks should have low thermal conductivity
and should be sound proof.
Brick should not show deposits of salts when
immersed in water and dried.
The minimum crushing strength of brick must
be
3.5 N/sq.mm
Classification of bricks :
Bricks are classified based on the
manufacturing process adopted. The
classification is given as follows.

 1st class bricks are table-molded and of standard shape.

These comply with all good qualities of bricks and are

used for superior and permanent works.
2nd class bricks are ground-molded burnt in the kilns. The
surface of the such bricks are rough and are slightly
irregular in shape. Such bricks are used with coat of
plaster.
3rd class are ground-molded and are burnt in clamps.
These bricks are not hard but rough with irregular and
distorted edges. These give a dull sound when struck
with each other. They are used for un-important and
temporary structures and at places where there is less
rain fall.
Over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour
are classified as 4th class bricks. These are used as
aggregates for concrete in foundations, floors, roads etc.

Dimensions of the Bricks

Bricks are made in traditional size and also

in metric size prescribed by Bureau of

Indian Standards. The bricks of latter size
are also called Modular bricks.
Depression made at the top of a brick is
called the Frog
Brick work is constructed with the frog laid
facing upwards.
It serves to place the name of the
manufacturer and also a key to the mortar
to bond bricks together.

Note:
There are depressions provided in the face of

the bricks.
There are 2 reasons for the provision of frogs
To form a key with mortar to prevent sliding of
the bricks of the beds.
To reduce the weight of the brick and hence
economy in the cost of transport
The
actual
dimensions and
Size prescribed
Ordinary
bricks
Tilenominal
bricks
dimensions
as per IS
is(inch)
given in the
Metric (cm)
FPS
Metricfollowing
FPS (inch)
(cm)
table
Actual

19 x 9 x 9

8 (7/8) x 4 (3/8) x
2

19 x 19 x
4

8 (7/8) x 4
(3/8) x 1

Normal

20 x 10 x 10

9x4x3

20 x 20 x
4

9x4x1

 Normal size of brick is the size including

thickness of the mortar.

The thickness of the mortar in the brick
work should not exceed 10 mm (3/8)
Bricks of thickness less than normal are
called tile bricks.
Metric bricks are also known as modular
bricks.
Conventional and specially shaped bricks :
The usual type of bricks made are shown in
figure.

Many specially shaped bricks like

single bullnose: the bricks with one edge
rounded.
double bullnose: the bricks with two edges
rounded.
curved bricks
The size of modular bricks are generally kept
a little larger to specified size.

Bed : the bottom surface of the brick when

it is laid flat
Stretcher : the side surface of the brick
visible in elevation when the brick is laid
flat
Header : the end surface of the brick when
it is laid flat
Arrises : the edge formed by the
intersection of plane surfaces of a brick
Perpends : these are vertical joints between
bricks either in longitudinal or cross
directions. Also known as cross joints

Bed joints : the horizontal mortar joints

between two successive courses.

Bats and closers : when a brick is cut to
reduced size it is known as bat or closer.
Quoin : the external corner or angle of a
wall surface is known as quoin.
Facing : the exposed surface of a wall or
structure
Backing : the internal surface of a wall or
structure
Hearting : portion in between facing and
backing

Lap : the horizontal distance between two

perpends in two successive courses

ClCCCCCCCCCassificatiCCCCCf bricks

Bricks can be classified in three ways namely according to

their use or its general physical requirements and the
strength or as in IS Classification
According to use
Bricks are sometimes, broadly classified according to
their uses as:
Common bricks
Engineering bricks (Special bricks for carrying heavy
loads)
Facing bricks
Fire bricks
Specials (Special shapes)

 According to general physical requirements

In some specifications, clay bricks are classified as:

Class I
Class II
Class III
The classes differ based on their general physical properties
The bricks of different classes differ in their water absorption
property
No good brick should disintegrate when immersed in water
even for a long period. Such disintegration shows lack of good
burning

Requirements of different classes of

burnt clay bricks
Requirements

Class I Bricks

Class II Bricks

Class III Bricks

1. General
requirements

Shall have a uniform

colour, Shall be
thoroughly burnt but
not over burnt, Shall
have plane
rectangular faces
with parallel sides
and sharp straight
right angled edges.
They shall have a
compact and uniform
texture

Shall have a
uniform colour and
made slightly over
burnt. The bricks
may be slightly
distorted and have
round edges. They
shall have a time
compact and
uniform texture
and uniform
texture

Maybe slightly
under burnt or
over burnt. They
maybe distorted
and have round
edges. The defects
in uniformity or
shape shall not be
such as to cause
differently in
obtaining uniform
courses with their
use

2. Water
absorption after
24 hours
immersion in
cold water

Not more than 20%

by weight.

Not more than

22% by weight.

Not more than

25% by weight.

Efflorescence

Slight

Slight

Moderate

I.S.Classification of bricks according to strength

Class Designation

C.S Requirements

Additional Requirements

10

10 N/mm2

Dimensional Tolerance
+/- 3%. Surface should be smooth,
corners must be sharp and should give
a clear ringing sound when struck.

7.5

7.5 N/mm2

Dimensional Tolerance
+/- 8%. Permitted to have slight
distortion. But it should not cause
difficulty in laying.

5.0

5.0 N/mm2

Dimensional Tolerance
+/- 8%. Permitted to have slight
distortion. But it should not cause
difficulty in laying.

3.5

3.5 N/mm2

Dimensional Tolerance
+/- 8%. Permitted to have slight
distortion. But it should not cause
difficulty in laying.

Note: Generally, factory made( wire cut) bricks in India give a

strength of the order of 17 N/mm2 when dry and 12 N/mm2 when
wet.
Common hand-made brick gives a strength of 3-5 N/mm2 generally.

Dimensional Tolerances
The dimensional Tolerances are very important

because of the following reasons:

To maintain the uniformity in exposed
brickworks.
To obviate the projections and depressions in
all surfaces which ultimately affects the
plastering of the wall surface.
To maintain the line of joints in brickwork.

 The minimum compressive strength of 1st class bricks

-100kg/cm2
The minimum compressive strength of 2nd class
bricks -75kg/cm2
The main ingredients of a good quality brick earth is:
Alumina - 20-30%
Silica - 50-60%

The main function of alumina in brick earth is to

impart plasticity.
Clay and silt content in a good brick earth must be at
least 50%.

Bricks for special use

1. Facing Bricks:

These bricks are generally made from selected clay

(which will give the necessary color in burning or with
special coloring agents added) and by pressing it in
special moulds.
2. Fire clay Bricks
. These special bricks are made for lining in devices such as

.
.
.
.

furnaces, digesters, ovens and so on. Also called refractory

bricks.
Made from special clays called fire clay.
Used for lining in chimneys, furnaces, and other situations
exposed to very high temperature.
These bricks should be laid with fire clay mortar and not
with cement mortar, when built as lining for chimneys.
Available as acidic,basic and neutral chimneys.

Acid-

Resisting Bricks

These

bricks are special bricks manufactured from materials of low clay

content and burnt at temperatures sufficiently high to convert the
constituents to crystalline minerals, which are insoluble in acids and
alkalis.

Forsterite

Bricks

These

bricks are made from olivine rocks to which magnesia is added in

the manufacturing process.
The chief constituent is the mineral forsterite (2mgO,siO 2). They re very
stable at high temperatures.
They are used in Open Hearth furnaces.
Silicon Carbide bricks.
These

bricks are made of carbon and silicon.

The are used in the electric resistance furnace.
It is inert to all acids and is used as a refractory material.

Types of brick made

Bricks are moulded either by hand or by machine.
In India hand moulded bricks are common and is less costly.
They can be ground moulded or table moulded.
The latter process is carried out with more care and produces

better bricks as compared to the former one.

Wire-cut bricks are made by machine as follows:

The prepared clay is fed in to a pug mill from which it

is forced through a mouth piece approximately equal
to the cross section of the brick as a continuous
bond. This is conveyed by rollers to a frame which
contains several fine vertical wires approximately the
size of the brick. These wires cut the clay band in to
brick sizes which are then burnt. Hence they are
called wire cut bricks.

Pressed bricks Made by putting the wire cut slab

in to a mould and further pressing it with a metal

plate above the clay block, thus consolidating it.
Pressed bricks are thus superior to wire cut bricks
and are used for facing or other decorative works.

Types of bricks in the market

Ground moulded bricks- Burnt in temporary

clamps. Dimensions irregular.

Table moulded bricks- Also called stock bricks.
Machine Moulded Bricks fired in continuous kiln
also called wire cut bricks.
Pressed bricks made under pressure- used for
decoration.

Weight of Brick work

Dead weight of brick in Buildings:
Generally taken as 18 to 19 kN/m
Avg.weight of a brick- about 3 3.5 kg depending

on its denseness.
The dead weight of a 225 mm thick wall can be
taken as 4.1 to 4.4 kN/m per meter height.
Light weight hollow bricks can be as low in weight
as only one-third the weight of a common brick.
Similarly, hollow concrete blocks cant to b e used
to reduce the dead weight of masonry in
buildings.

Light-Weight clay bricks

When do we need light weight bricks?
In tall buildings to reduce the deadweight of walls and

thus reduce the load on the foundation.

In partition walls, to reduce the weight and to insulate
them from sound.
In walls above cantilever beams to reduce the weight.
Light weight bricks can be made using one of the
following methods.
As solid bricks made from clay mixed with combustible materials
which burn off leaving a porous, light brick .
b. As hollow bricks in which the brick contains hollows with ribs. They
are usually made from tile clay as the ribs have to be thin and
strong. They are available in many sizes ( to suit outer and
partition walls) including bricks of standard sizes. The weight of
these can be one third the weight corresponding to solid bricks.
a.

Brick substitutes
As bricks are made from clay excavated from the earth, the

availability of good earth is becoming less and less whereas

the demand for bricks is increasing. Hence it is necessary to
produce bricks from industrial wastes and other raw materials.
Such bricks are as follows:
Flyash bricks
Made from flyash which is obtained from burning coal or lignite in various
industries, especially in power houses. Lime or cement is also added to give the
required strength.
Many factories are coming up in India to manufacture flyash bricks.
Indian Govt. encourages this by giving concession to its manufacturers.
Sand lime bricks/calcium silicate bricks
Made by autoclaving sand lime bricks( made from sand, lime and water with
added pigments to color.) with high pressure steam in special chambers.
Cement and Concrete blocks