|



›

 


 
| = interdisciplinary scientific study of the
distribution and abundance of organisms and
their interactions with their environment

           

     
Æ  ones such as climate and geology, and
Æ  factors, including members of the same
species (conspecifics) and other species that
share a habitat
|  

Æ  , including reproductive

behavior, mortality, bioenergetics and
migrations,
Æ    such as predation,
competition, parasitism and mutualism,
Æ       
    , &
Æ   u
|  is often closely related to
other disciplinesu Thus,

Æ  addresses ecological

questions using tools from genetics,
Æ  uses tools from archeology
Æ use often highly
complex mathematical models to explore how
ecosystems and their elements functionu
 ~istory
1850: Wallace & Darwin
Theory of Natural Selection
concepts that is how living systems
relate with their environemnt
1859: ~aekel first formally define Ecology
transform to some dynamic term that
is environment
 Ecology
Ernst ~aekel German biologist
p
 

"the comprehensive science of the relationship

of the organism to the environmentu"
oikos = house
logia = logia
| !"and | # 
two early founders of Ecology

Several notable 19th century scientists such as

$ !(1769 ʹ 1859)
%& (1809 ʹ 1882)
$'#(1823 ʹ 1913)
() (1825 ʹ 1908)

made many important contributions, from laying down the

foundation of biogeography to identifying an interacting
groups of organisms as a functionally connected community
( )
| #  Danish botanist
first significant textbook of ecology
For this early work, he is sometimes identified as the
founder of ecology
$  !, German explorer
often considered as father of ecologyu
first to take on the study of the relationship between
organisms and their environment
exposed the existing relationships between observed
plant species and climate and described
vegetation zones using latitude and altitude, a
discipline now known as 
one of his famous works was (1805) "Idea for a Plant
Geography"
$'#
contemporary and competitor to Darwin
was first to propose a "geography" of animal
speciesu
Several authors recognized at the time that
species were not independent of each other,
and grouped them into plant species, animal
species, and later into communities of living
beings or  
()(1877) first use of biocoenosis
$%)(1825)
French naturalist used the term =
 about an
assemblage of plant individuals of different speciesu
%&
focused exclusively on competition as a selective
force
| # 
devised a new discipline that took abiotic factors,
that is drought, fire, salt, cold etcu, as seriously as
biotic factors in the assembly of biotic communitiesu
| 
the Austrian geologist proposed the term
biosphere in 1875
Suess proposed the name biosphere for
the conditions promoting life, such as
those found on Earth which includes:
flora
fauna
minerals
matter cycles
J before Warming was largely of
descriptive nature - faunistic or floristicu
Warming͛s aim was, through the study of organism
(plant) morphology and anatomy,
iueu  ʹ
to explain why a species occurred under
a certain set of environmental conditions
Moreover, the goal of the new discipline was to
explain why species occupying similar habitats,
experiencing similar hazards, would solve
problems in similar ways, despite often being of
widely different phylogenetic descentu
1890:viewed ecology only as ͞interrelationship͟
:scientific study of interrelations between
organism and its environment
Beyond : $ ͞Balance of Nature͟
: species as constant and mutable
and had its place in nature
:followed by birth of Natural ~istory
%& , natural historian
called the discovery of ͞new world͟
: associate existence with certain
living system
eugu forest grass with climate
Darwin͛s concept of natural selection focused
primarily on competition

Æ all his life a man nearly obsessed with the

ideas of  ,  and  * ʹ
with all forms of human contact as
confrontation
  (19th century)
ecology blossomed due to new discoveries in
chemistry by notably the nitrogen cycle

Æ That life developed only within strict limits of

each compartment that makes up the
atmosphere
hydrosphere
lithosphere
½+,½ " (1920) a Russian geologist
who had defected to France, detailed the idea
of the biosphere in his work

Æ "The biosphere" (1926), and described the

fundamental principles of the biogeochemical
cycles

Æ ~e thus redefined the biosphere as the sum of

all ecosystems
Æ First ecological damages were reported in the
18th century as the multiplication of colonies
caused 
Æ Since the 19th century with the  
  more and more pressing concerns
have grown about the impact of @

on the environment
Æ The term has been in use since the
end of the 19th century
 $
  (1935)
Æ the British ecologist, coined the term ecosystem, the
interactive system established between the
biocoenosis (the group of living creatures), and
their biotope, the environment in which they liveu
Æ J (19th century) Botanical geography and
zoogeography combined
Æ This science, which deals with habitats of species,
seeks to explain the reasons for the presence of
certain species in a given locationu
Æ Ecology thus became the science of
ecosystemsu
Æ Tansley's concept of the ecosystem was
adopted by the energetic and influential
biology educator Eugene Odum
Æ Along with his brother, ~oward Odum,
Eugene Pu Odum wrote a textbook which
(starting in 1953) educated more than one
generation of biologists and ecologists in
North Americau
Æ !  began in the 1920s, through
the study of changes in vegetation succession

Æ It became a distinct field of study in the 1970s

Æ This marked the first recognition that @
,

who had colonized all of the Earth's
continents, were a
  u
Æ ~umans greatly modify the environment
through the development of the habitat,
(n particular urban planning
by intensive exploitation activities such as:
logging
fishing and
as side effects of:
agriculture
mining
industry
Æ 1960: direction in Ecology took turn, the
trust is on ͞human͟
eugu    
-focus on how organisms and environment is
interrupted by man - introduction of
pesticide
- was also the impetus for the environmental
protection programs that were started in
the Kennedy and Johnson administrations
and passed into law just before the first
Earth Dayu
In 1972, the United Nations held
Æ The First International Conference on the
~uman Environment in Stockholm, prepared
by Rene Dubos and other experts
- This conference was the origin of the
phrase ͞
 " $ ͟
The next major events in ecology (1980s)
-were the development of the  
and the appearance of terms
" ͟ or now more
commonly biodiversity
In 1992, during the Earth Summit in
Rio de Janeiro
these terms were developed
where the concept of the
biosphere was recognized by the
major international organizations,
and risks associated with
reductions in biodiversity were
publicly acknowledgedu
In 1997, at the conference leading to the kyoto Protocol
-the dangers the biosphere was facing
were recognized from an international point of view
-In particular, this conference highlighted the
increasing dangers of the greenhouse effect --
related to the increasing concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to
global changes in climate
-In Kyoto, most of the world's nations recognized the
importance of looking at ecology from a global point
of view, on a worldwide scale, and to take into
account the impact of humans on the Earth's
environment
 
Ecology
Æ usually considered as a branch of biology,
the general science that studies living
organisms
Æ associated with the highest levels of
biological organization, including the
individual organism, the population, the
ecological community, the ecosystem and
the biosphere as a wholeu
u
Ecology is a     that draws
on many other branches, including geology
and geography, meteorology, soil science,
genetics, chemistry, physics, mathematics and
statistics, because of its focus on the
interrelations between organisms and their
environment,
Ecology is considered by some to be a 
 , one that over-arches older disciplines
such as biology which in this view become
sub-disciplines contributing to ecological
knowledge due to its breadth of scope,
Æ $| with respect to issues of
natural resource management:
*wildlife conservation
*habitat management
*mitigation of ecological impacts of
environmental pollution
*ecosystem restoration
*species reintroductions, fisheries, forestry
and game management
*Urban development, agricultural and public
health issues
 % 
Æ |  examines how the physiological
functions of organisms influence the way they
interact with the environment, both biotic and
abioticu
Æ J examines the roles of
behavior in enabling an animal to adapt to its
environmentu
Æ   studies the dynamics of
populations of a single speciesu
Æ    (or   ) focuses
on the interactions between species within an
ecological communityu
Æ |  studies the flows of energy
and matter through the biotic and abiotic
components of ecosystemsu
Æ  is an interdisciplinary field
focusing on the study, development, and
organization of ecological systems from a
holistic perspectiveu
Æ    examines processes and
relationship in a spatially explicit manner,
often across multiple ecosystems or very large
geographic areasu
Æ |   studies ecology in a way
that explicitly considers the evolutionary
histories of species and their interactionsu
Æ   connects politics and
economy to problems of environmental
control and ecological changeu
Æ Ecology can also be sub-divided according to
the species of interest into fields such as:
-animal ecology
-plant ecology,
-insect ecology
Æ Another frequent method of subdivision is by
biome studied, eugu, Arctic ecology (or polar)
tropical ecology
desert ecology
marine ecology
The primary technique used for
investigation is often used to
subdivide the discipline into groups
such as:
chemical ecology
molecular ecology
field ecology quantitative ecology
theoretical ecology
Æ ?EVE?S OF ORGANIZATION
biomolecules

organelles organisms

cells population

tissues communities

organs ecosystem

organ system biomes (major habitat)

Æ Operational environment:
Exchange of matter
Source of energy

Flow of energy
Vital essential material
Source of energy

?IVING ENVIRONMENT
(OPERATIONA?)
Odum: Ecology is basically͙͙uu
Æ the study of structures and functions in nature
Æ When particular structures interact they exhibit
specific functions
Æ Functions are also interrelated to be capable of
interaction
Æ Thus, the structural framework of ecosystem when
viewed as Systems Analysis

STRUCTURES FUNCTIONS
 STRUCTURES FUNCTIONS
1u Inorganic 1u energy flows/transformation
2u Organic 2u trophic organization (food chain)
3u Climate 3u biogeochemical cycles
4u Producer 4u diversity pattern
5u Consumer 5u development
6u Decomposer 6u homeostasis
Structures
1uInorganic ʹ non carbon compounds which
play a vital speciific function in the
production of sugar
iueu in order for the leaf to capture light for the
manufacture of sugar, it must be provided
with necessary nutrient to trigger the process
2u Organic ʹ fatty acids, sugars, carbon,
protein, lipids, organic acids
3u Climate ʹ physical profile
It is categorized into 3 based on diurnal factors
au photoperiod-duration of light
bu temperature-ambient tempu
cu humidity - transpiration
Climate further characterized by
,  - amount of rainfall in the system
classify plants into-
£ ~ydrophytes- water
£ ~ygrophytes ʹ damp area
£ Mesophytes ʹ dry/wet area
£ Xerophytes- dry area
bu ! ʹthe 10 importance of which is the availability of
nutrients in available form
c,   ʹ salt concentration
du   ʹ dry/wet
4u 
Æ green plants with light energy - to produce
organic matter from the inorganic (abiotic)
nutrients in the environment
Æ Categorize into 2 according to size
au microphytes: photosynthetic bacteria
blue green algae
phytoplanktons
nanoplanktons
flagellates
bu macrophytes
algae
mosses
ferns
fern allies
gymnosperms
angiosperms
5u  
Æ All the animals which feed directly or indirectly
through food chains on the green plants
Æ They are highly diverse group of organisms with
many complex relationships among them
Æ Therefore consumers are placed in many categories
microconsumers- parasites
macroconsumers- herbivores-10 consumers
carnivores-20 consumers
omnivores- animals that feed
on both
6u Decomposers
Microbes and fungi that rot decompose or
otherwise break down organic wastes and
return the nutrients to the environment

2 classes: 1u fungi } both feed

2u bacteria } on organic matter

Consumers and Decomposers contribute to the

stability of the ecosystem
Functions
1uEnergy flows
£ laws of thermodynamics
£ an important aspect of ecology is to try to measure
the pathways and efficiencies of energy transfer
£ Questions central to understanding the structure
and function of ecological systems
1u ~ow does energy enter & pass through an ecosystem
2u ~ow much eenergy is lost when solar energy is transformed
into the chemical energy of plant protoplasm through
photosynthesis
3u ~ow much is lost when plants are consumed by animals
4u ~ow can man best utilize energy flow patterns to improve
the quantity and quality of his own food supplyu
Energy flow

Ä
 
° 

   
  


2uTrophic organization
au Food chain
£ after the initial production of organic matter
by the producer, the nutrients & energy
incorporated in the producer are passed
through the rest of the system by consumers
feeding upon producers and upon one
another
£ In all food chains the ultimate beneficiaries
are the decomposers
bu Food pyramid
£Diagram of data representing the standing
crops of each trophic level
£Structured according to members of
organisms, total biomass or total energy flow
at each trophic level
£reflects the relative size of the participation in
the food chain & food web
cu Food web
£Put together all the food chains in any
community or ecosystem
£It gives no indication of the importance of
each link in terms of energies
£It is a useful devise for expressing trophic
relationships in a qualitative way but it can tell
us little or nothing about quantitative energy
relationships
3u Geochemical cycle
£Basically corollary to energy flows & trophic
organization
£The structures interact with each other and
some of the functions interlay
eugu nutrient K+ which is part of the substrate
or the so called geological substrate is
absorbed by the root to stem finally to the
leaf͙͙͙uumatures͙ufalls͙uin the process K+ is
released & becomes again part of the
substrate
Æ The importance of geochemical cycle is
that͙the cycles are moved by living
protoplasm that is living things capable of
extracting materials
Æ So with refernce to the example it would be
the movement of K+ to the protoplasm of the
root to the stem to the leaf to the monkey to
the lion back to the origin of K+ throughwaste
materials which undergo sedimentary cycle or
gaseous cycle
Æ Practically, all essential materials in the
ecosystem are constantly in cycle hnece
termed ͞biocoenosis͟ that means lot of life
processes are open ended iueu no wall
separating each & everyone, hence, capabnle
of interacting with each other
Æ Continuous biogeochemical cycles and active
protoplasm makes environment stable
eugu cut all trees in the forest ʹ there would be
inefficient energy flows, disorganized trophic
& disrupted cycles
4u Diversity patterns
In time (temporal) and space (spatial) has
something contribute much to the stability of
the environment
?iving things allocate with other members of the
area, they take turns in flowering
In natural environment which is highly
heterogenous͙the structures vary in intensity
& in kind͙these variations would make an
environment stable
5u growth/development
Structures grow & develop through stages until stability
is reached or the so called climax state
Climax is self perpetuating & in equilibrium with the
physical habitat
eugu open ecosystem (pioneer population)- contributes
to changes in the physical structure of the area ʹ this
then grow & develop through stages presumably
througgh SERE up to the time when the environment
can already be considered stable, hence attained its
climax
Æ Stochastic patterns exist due to trigger factors
 APPROAC~ES IN ECO?OGY

1u Descriptive ʹ natural history

2u Functional ʹ proximate analysis
3u Evolutionary ultimate analysis
3 basic properties of the environment
1u ~olism
2u ?imiting factors
3u Trigger factors
1u~olism ʹ dynamic relationship in the
environment eugu heat from the sun
2u ?imiting factors ʹ limit the extent of the
relationshipu In all the relationship
something will be limitingu It is then a
question of how far living things can relate
with its sorroundings eugu photosynthesis
3u Trigger factors ʹ factors that would cause
changes in the system that will eventually
interfere or enhance the relationship of
living and non living things
 ?evels of Biological Integration in the
Operational Environment

1u Species
2u Population
3u Community
4u Biomes
 Species
£ Characterized by Ecological Gene Flow
£ Ecological point of view ʹ species share a common
gene pool, phenotype, niche
£ In taxonomy, species refers to individuals possessing
similar morphological and reproductive
characteristics
£ Problem arises due to constant change of genetic
pool
£ Perform a specific role in ecological niche which is
described as to ~abitat, Function and ~ypervolume
 Ecological Niche
Æ ~abitat ʹ must establish a home
eugu grassland
Æ Function ʹ must have a role
eugu herbivores
Æ ~ypervolume ʹ adaptability or sociability
eugu extension of which, that is, they can move
 Species occupying the same niche

•, $
., 
 Allopatric
£ involves character displacement
£ since there is no competition in this group, it tends
to convergence, that is to develop a phenotype
which is similar in morphology
£ It occurs when there is isolation through
geographic separation of populations
£ Descended from common ancestors
 Sympatric
£ Share the same niche, or habitat or hypervolume
£ They speciate to lesser competition and finally
become diverge ʹ this involves displacement of
character so we expect changes in morphology
£ And if the species can overcome all this constrains
than they result to speciation, that is, the formation
of new species and the development of species
diversity, when isolation occurs through ecological or
genetic means within the same area͙uu
 Ecotypes
£ Species with wide geographical ranges almost always
develop locally adapted populations
£ ~ave optima and limits of tolerances adjusted to
local conditions
eugu McMillan (1956) found that prairie grasses of the
same species transplanted into experimental gardens
from different altitudes responded quite differently
͙͙͙ the reproductive period change
 Ecological Niche Concept
£It denotes ecological equilibrium, it is
regulated by biological clocks
(1) Diurnal
(2)?unar
(3) Seasonal
£Biological clocks function as coordinating
mechnism
£Also determine species behavior with respect
to speciation
 species (indvu) ʹ niche ʹ phenotype - speciation
7 Basic Behavioral Patterns ʹvary in importance - according to
the kind of organism
Æ Tropism
Æ Nasties
Æ Taxis
Æ Relexes
Æ Instinct
Æ ?earning
Æ Reasoning
 1u Tropism
£ directed movements & orientations found in plants
£ Behavioral responses directed towards sources of
stimulus
£ It has three types-
-  growth response is directed towards
source of stimulus which is gravity
- vertical orientation of leaves of trees
on a hot sunny day
- growth response is directed
towards the source of light, that is, turning of plant
to face the sun
 2u Nasties
£ Behavioral responses that enhance survival of individual
£ The response is towards a stimulus but not necessarily
directed towards a source
£ It has four types ʹ
-)   response to dark, exhibited by lotus flower which
opens at day time to attrack pollinators
-  response for water saving purposes, exhibited
by makahiya which closses its leaf when it is windy for water
economy
- 

- 
 3u Taxis
£Avoidance of unfavorable condition in the
habitat
£Exhibited by slime molds that is placed near a
toxic substance ʹ the tendency of the
organism is to grow away from the toxin
£It has two types ʹ
- 
- 
4uIt co9nsist Reflexes ʹ stimulus responses of
specific body organs
5u Instinct ʹ innate, consists of encoded
sequences of stereotyped behavior such as
nest building, food gathering, courtship,
mating and maternal instinct
6u ?earning ʹ charracterized by presence of
central nervous system
7u Reasoning ʹ aside from the presence of CNS it
consist also of brain spirit
Species behavior is concerned with social
behavior and it onvolves interaction of
individual

These interactions may be ʹ

-beneficial
-non-beneficial
- harmful
 Social behavior
£is expected to optimize resource utilization
£It is expected to put orders to members of the
society so hierarchial organization is
established
£So, survival which is attributed by biological
clocks & species behavior with the
participation of social behavior is enhanced,
 Natural Selection
£ An individual or singly the product of each genome
and each surrounding environment
£ An individual phenotype is best discussed in terms of
its ecology, morphology, physiology as well as its
behavior (behavioral pattern)
£ If you look around certain phenotype are found in
special case͙͙u Niche, which is the sum of
individual͛s morphology, physiology & behavioral
pattern, so that if you pick up an organism, it is
composed of genome x environment
 Process of natural selection
1u Population which have u1u eugu rabbits are
high reproductive capacity very prolific
2u Population size remain 2u they don͛t
constant due to because
3u ~igh mortality 3u of production
4uIndividuals vary with 4u some rabbits
respect to ʹ survival run faster
5u Trait is passed on to offspring 5u so do their offspring
6u Composition of the 6u rabbits run faster
population is selected then their ancestors
£Survival of individual is associated with
specific traits which pass on to offspring and
this is selected͙uit takes generation for this to
happen
£~ow do we demonstrate or what are the
evidence
£Darwin explained NIC~E in terms of natural
selection
1st  /study on how to control pest
 Control Pest Program
In a certain citrus plantation was infested with scale insectsu The
control pest program sprayed the plantation with cyanida(CN)
to act as control as far as citrus is concernedu
IN the process of controlling they noted that some pest (scale
insect) die but some were resistant
The resistant trait could be inherited ʹ the offspring were also
resistant and can pass on to their next offspring
They counter check the presence of resistant insects through
collection of scale insects in an environment, that is,
unsprayed areas which is not exposed to cyanide
They found out that some insects were resistant
So, they conclude that the cyanide which was sprayed as a
means of controlling peat did not bring about the resistant
insects, it has already been thereu
 2nd evidence thru the phenomenon - Mutation
Mutants involves error in the passing of traits from parents to
offspring
Pesticide : brought out an important ecological phenomena͙it
acts as selective agent and it forms the resistant
*If you favor the resistant, then what happen?
They will be reduced because the natural population is
also eliminated by the first choice of pesticide so to further
eliminate the resistant you look for new pesticide
Cyanbide (CN) was the selecting agent induced by
external means
 Population
£Group of individuals of the same species
which are capable of exchanging genetic
materials or share common gene pool
eugu Gene flow
°° °°

 !
 " # ##   $

 " # %   
 " & ''( '% $
 #''°° 
 Population from ecological point of interest
There are group attributes or characteristics which are not
restricted to only an individual but all the individuals
belonging to the local population

Thus, group attributes of population

1u Demographic
-Natality
-Mortality
-Density
2u Genetic
-population growth
-movement/dispersal (distribution)
-territoriality
-population interaction
Demographic is the end product of dynamic interaction
£ If we know natality, mortality and density of a certain
population, then we can predict the ͞?ife table͟
£ Population is a reflection of population density or size
£ Density of any given point of time is determined by four basic
population parameters
1u Natality - (+) contribution or effect on density
2u Mortality - (-) effect
3u Immigration - (+) influence on the size of the population
4u Emigration - (-) effect
 Density is the nou per unit area in a locality

 
 
)*+

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 ~ow do we approximate density͙uu
1u Total counts ʹ done by census
- impractical as far as ecology of natural
population is concerned
2u Quadrat ʹ this method is more practical to use in
approximating density
- estimate the density based on quadrat
method is basically extrapolation
3u Capture method ʹ on time interval to approximate
the size
 Natality
£ Nou of new individuals per unit time (crude)
£ It has two related phenomena:
ʹ fertility; and
-- fecundityu
î ʹ indicative of the capability of individuals to
interbreed, assumed with respect to fecundityu
î  ʹ refers to the nou of offsprings per individual
per unit time
So called-
-      &
- 0   
  î  '
What would be the potential fecundity rate of man
based on fertility age group͙uit would be the nou of
births/year coz it will take 9-10 months for a child to
be born
'0 î  '
Take the inset and offset of female reproductive
periodsu So that͛s approximately from 13 years of
age to 45 years of ageu
When we consider the potential which is 1
birth/year, from that limit 13-45, each female can
produce 32 childrenu
But in reality the normal nou of children is 4
So to determine the Realized Fecundity Rates:
Divide 32 (possible children) by 4 (average nou
of childrenu
~ence, the realized fecundity rates would be 8
years, that is, one birth/8 years


 

     


 
 
 Mortality
£?ook at it in terms of survival
£Survivorship
Profile of natural population with respect to
mortality
÷ % 

 %
,'

%( 
# #'' °

%  #

 Population Age Structure ʹ biologicsl natural resource
1u Important in the utilization of biological natural resource and
to know the age distribution of the different members of the
population

°# 

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%$#
 °# 

-'° 
%  # $ 
.$ .°° 0 ( '
  ##  #''
°° 
#%

ë.°# #°° /

2u Useful in programming the future sizes of the
population
eugu In the Scandinavian countries, the gov͛t
noted that populations are getting oldu So,
they release a policy of ͞free love͟u This
encourage love without the bonds of marriage
to back this up the gov͛t provided: nurseries;
orphanages; & home for unwed mothersu This
strategy is rejuvinate the population, to
increase the pre-reproduction size of the
population
 Genetic
~ow population grow in the Natural ~abitat

Popoulation profile has two types:

1u J type

1u S type
J type
%$°

 
#
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&°
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4$

£.  $#°'
£  °$ $$&$ $ '$

£0 ''$ ° 
£ /# $
£&°'$ 
S sygmoid type


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#

4$

£$&°
£%$'  '     # 
%$0  #'' $ #  $ #
'$ °'°# 
£0 '  '$0 $'/
 °$ $/
 In both instances the asymtote is the reflection
of the Intrinsic rate of increase and this is
usually represented by:

1 $
O%#
1
#

O O#
O2 #

. #%  / $' %$°3

" #O#°3

£° $ %°%' 

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After growth the individual try to distribute
themselves ʹ association of individuals
belonging to the same speciesu Thus,
distribution ʹ
-random
-regular
-clumped
Regular
£Distribution of individual of the same
population
£What condition gives rise to regular
distribution? ͙uuAmong individuals that are
not sociable, they tend to keep away from one
another ʹ situation where there is regular
distribution
eugu individual release toxin, so only species
resistant to such toxic substances are allowed,
hence, there is regular distribution
Aggregation
£Is the tendency of individuals to clump which
lead to home range
iueu if you have a nou of individuals & decide to
be closer together͙uuso, what happens is to
form a group
£This principle is worked out by Allee
A??EE͛s PRINCIP?E
The degree of aggregation as well as the overall
density which results in optimum population
growth and survival varies with species and
conditions, therefore, undercrowding (or lack
of aggregation) as well as overcrowding may
be limiting

 

' $°
Random
£ it can be any place within the hypervolume niche
£ within areas where we can establish the niche
£ This happens only when we have homogeneous locality, to
anypoint because the physico=chemical condition is
practically the same
£ But if there is geradient, the distribution must be within areas
where niches are favorably established
£ The degree of aggregation to be found in a given species
population, therefore, depends on the specific nature of the
habitat (whether uniform or discontinuous)
ʹ the weather or other physical factors, the type of reproductive
pattern, characteristic of the species and the degree or
sociability
TERRITORIA?ITY
£Refers to the establishment of an area which
involves defense of the habitat or the niche of
the population
£Widely observed in fishes, birds & mammals
£In birds they establish their territory and then
bird ͞calls͟ detect the incoming population
GROWT~ 2,84,
.4 04

DISPERSA? 2#$ °°   #

2#$ ## '' 
TERRITORY %
Interactions among populations are basically of two
types
1u Symbiosis = positive
£ mutualism = both benefited
£ commensalism = one is benefited
2u Competition = negative
£ arise from niche ʹ overlaps where
competition arises
£ When competition is so severe, the needs are so
narrow so one has to give way
£ If hypervolume is wide enough, one species have
to change ͞Speciation͟ to avoid severe competition