PRESENTED BY:

AISHWARYA DEOPUJARI
PRERANA DAS
NISHTHA DUGGAL
VASUNDHRA SINGH
SRIDEVI
SECTION-B
6TH SEMESTER

Contents
Basic Concepts
Psychrometry
Outdoor Design Conditions
Indoor Design Criteria
Cooling Load Principles
Cooling Load Components
Heating Load

Basic Concepts
Thermal load
The amount of heat that must be added or
removed from the space to maintain the proper
temperature in the space
When thermal loads push conditions outsider

of the comfort range, HVAC systems are used

to bring the thermal conditions back to
comfort conditions

PSYCHROMETRY

What is PSYCHROMETRY
The field of engineering concerned with the determination of physical and

thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures.

Study of various properties of air, method of controlling its temperature and

moisture content or humidity and its effect on various materials and human
beings.
Helps in understanding different constituents of air and how they affect each

other.

Air (ordinary) = mixture of various gases + water

vapor or moisture.
Air without any water vapor - dry air (ideal condition,
not possible)
Composition of air:
Nitrogen (78%),
Oxygen (21%)
Others (1%) like carbon dioxide, hydrogen, helium,
neon, and argon along with water vapor.

State
Point

Air Properties
Dry-bulb temperature,

which is usually referred to

as simply air temperature,
is the air property that is
most familiar. Dry-bulb
temperature, Tdb, can be
measured using a standard
thermometer or more
sophisticated sensors. This
temperature is an indicator
of heat content and is
shown along the bottom
axis of the psychrometric
chart. The vertical lines
extending upward from
this axis are constanttemperature lines.

 Wet-bulb

temperature, Twb,
represents how much
moisture the air can
evaporate. This
temperature is often
measured with a
common mercury
thermometer that has
the bulb covered with
a water-moistened
wick and with a known
air velocity passing
over the wick. On the
chart, the wet-bulb
lines slope a little
upward to the left,
and this
temperature is read
at the saturation
line.

 Relative humidity, RH, is the

ratio of the actual water vapor

pressure, Pv, to the vapor pressure
of saturated air at the same
temperature, Pvs, expressed as a
percentage.
Relative humidity is a relative
measure, because the moistureholding capacity of air increases
as air is warmed. In practice,
relative humidity indicates the
moisture level of the air compared
to the airs moisture-holding
capacity.
Relative humidity lines are
shown on the chart as curved
lines that move upward to the
left in 10% increments. The
line representing saturated air
(RH = 100%) is the uppermost
curved line on the chart.

 Dewpoint, Tdp, is the

temperature at which
water vapor starts to
condense out of air
that is cooling. Above
this temperature, the
moisture stays in the
air.
This temperature is
read by following a
horizontal line from
the state-point
(found earlier) to
the saturation line.

 Humidity ratio, w, is the

dry-basis moisture content

of air expressed as the
weight of water vapor per
unit weight of dry air.
Humidity ratio is

indicated along the

right-hand axis of a
psychrometric chart.

Specific volume represents the space occupied

by a unit weight of dry air, in ft 3/lb, and is equal

to 1/air density. Specific volume is shown along
the bottom axis of a psychrometric chart, with
constant-volume lines slanting upward to the left.
Enthalpy, h, is the measure of airs energy
content per unit weight (Btu/lb da). Wet-bulb
temperature and enthalpy are related intuitively.
So, enthalpy is read from where the appropriate
wet-bulb line crosses the diagonal scale above
the saturation curve.

Humidity in air
Relative Humidity
A measure of of

much water is in
the air relative to
the maximum
amount air can
hol at that
tmperature

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BASIC FACTORS THAT

AFFECT HUMAN
COMFORT IN THE
INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENTTHERMAL COMFORT

Thermal and air

quality
What affects the surroundings you live in?
Air quality is affected by how hot it is outside or

inside your environment

What is humidity and what affects humidity?
The amount of moisture that is present within the
air will have an effect on humidity, which is linked
to the amount of ventilation entering
What is the normal temperature of a human being?
Human temperature maintain an average core
temperature of 37 depending on the metabolic
rate

Nature of heat
What is the measure of temperature
Temperature is measured in degrees celsius
The lower is 0 fixed at a melting point of ice at a

stand at atmospheric pressure of 101.32kN/m2

The upper point is 100 degrees temperature of
steam above the boiling point
What is the acceptable value of temperature
taken at normal design?
Normal design temperature are taken at 21
degrees inside and -1 degrees outside on
average

Thermodynamic
temperature
scale
This is another measure of temperature in degrees

Kelvin
0 degree celsius= 273.16 Kelvin (K)
100 degree celsius = 317.16 Kelvin
The unit of thermodynamic temperature is the
fraction of the thermodynamic temperature at the
triple point water
(equilibrium point of the temperature and pressure
at which three known phases of substance can
exist i.e. liquid, water vapour and pure ice)

Quantity of heat
How do we measure the quantity of heat?
Heat is measured in joules (J) which is a

measure of work done

The rate of expenditure of energy or doing
work or of heat loss is measured in watts
(W)
1 watt is = 1 Joule per second
1 W =1 J/s

Heat transfer
Name three ways heat is transferred from one

mass to another, for instance a person sitting

next to a radiator.
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

Thermal comfort
In high activity the temperature rises and the

more heat you will give off. Several factors

influences the level heat is generated (metabolic
rate) including:
Your surface area
Age
Gender
Level of activity
e.g.
Sleeping heat output 70W. Lifting 440W.

Typical heat output of an

adult male
Activity

Example

Heat output

Immobile

Sleeping

70W

Seated

Watching TV

115W

Light work

Office

140W

Medium work

Factory Work

265W

Heavy work

Lifting

440W

Clothing
The amount of clothing that we wear

generally depends on the season and affects

our thermal comfort
Clothing is measured in a scale called clo
value
1 clo= 0.155m2 K/W of insulation to the body
Typical values vary from 1-4 clo

Typical clothing values

Clo value

Clothing

Typical comfort
temperature
when sitting

0 clo

Swimwear

29C

0.5 clo

Light clothing

25C

1 clo

Suit , jumper

22C

2 clo

Coat, gloves, hat

14C

Heat losses from

buildings
Comfortable temperature for humans is
provided by balancing the heat lost through
conduction and ventilation through the fabric
with similar heat
Optimum temperature will depend on
material used , type of construction,
orientation of the building and degree of
exposure to the rain and wind

Room temperatures
What would you consider in design to maintain

temperature in buildings?
The resistance of a material to the passage of
heat and the thermal conductivity of the material
in passing the heat along are the basics of
understanding of maintaining a steady
temperature and a comfortable thermal indoor
environment
In order to maintain a comfortable room
temperature the building must be provided with
as much heat as is lost through ventilation

What will the loss of

heat
in
buildings
depend
Materials used
on?
Type of construction
Orientation of the building in relation to the

sun
Degree of exposure to rain and wind

Thermal conductivity
(k)
The amount of heat loss in one second
through 1m2 of material, whose thickness is 1
metre
The units are W/mK (watts per metre Kelvin)

K-Values
Material

K Value
(W/mK)

Brickwork (internal/exposed) (1700kg/m3)

0.84

Concrete, dense (2100kg/m3)

1.40

Concrete, lightweight (1200kg/m3)

0.38

Plaster, dense

0.50

Rendering

0.50

Concrete block, medium, weight

(1400kg/m3)

0.51

Concrete block, lightweight (600kg/m3)

0.19

Thermal resistivity (r)

Thermal resistivity is the reciprocal of thermal

conductivity:
R=1/K

Air movement
Properties are tested for airtightness
Draught seals are fitted to all openings

to restrict thermal losses

If warmer air enter a room is not mixed
with cooler air the room becomes hotter
near the ceiling and colder at floor level

Humidity & Ventilation

Humidity- the amount of water or moisture in
the air measured in grams per cubic
metre(g/m3)
Relative Humidity or percentage
saturation
This the percentage saturation
Actual amount of water vapour/maximum
amount of water vapour that can be held X
100% of the temperature

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Humans are used to a relative humidity of

between 40 and 60%. Greater than this we

start to describe air as being Humid.

HEAT LOSS DUE TO

VENTILATION

Natural ventilation leads to the complete

volume of air in a room changing a certain
number of times in one hour

Type of room
Halls

Air changes in hr
1.0
Bedrooms /lounges
1.5
WCs and bathrooms
2.0

HEAT LOSS DUE TO

VENTILATION
The fresh air entering the room will need to be heated
to the internal temperature of the room. This is
calculated with the formula:
Volume of room x air change rate x volumetric specific
heat for air x temperature difference
The volumetric specific heat for air is approximately
1300j/m3K and is considered a constant in this formula
which will give an answer in joules per hour.
This then has to be converted into watts in order to
find the rate of heat loss which is achieved by dividing
the number of joules by the number of seconds in one
hour

Heat loss to
ventilation

This then has to be converted into watts in order to find

the rate of heat loss which is achieved by dividing the

number of joules by the number of seconds in one hour

Volume of room/building x air changes hr x 1300J x

Temperature difference / 3600s = Watts

It is convenient when carrying out heat loss calculations

to assume an average internal temperature of 19C

minus average of -1C in winter which gives 20C
difference between inside and outside temperatures

Theory into practice

Calculate the rate of heat loss due to

ventilation for the building measuring 4.5m x

3.25 in plan and has a ceiling height of 2.6m.
The number of air changes in one hour is
1.35. The outside temperature is 6C and the
inside temperature is 19C.

Calculation
{(4.5x3.25x2.6)m3 x 1.35 x 1300J x (19-6)}/

3600s
240.983 Watts

Theory into practice

A domestic semi-detached dwelling is subject to

1.5 changes per hour. Calculate the total heat

loss due to ventilation. In this example we have
removed the circulation space which is
uninhabited.
Room Dimensions
Lounge is 3.5m x 3.5m
Kitchen/diner is 4.0m x 2.5m
Bedroom 1 is 3.0m x 3.0m
Bedroom 2 is 2.75m x 2.75m
Bathroom 3 is 2.5m x 2m
Storey height is 2.4m
Air changes for all rooms 1.5 per hour
Temperature difference -1C outside, 19C inside.

Calculation
Lounge 3.5 x 3.5 x 2.4 =29.4
Kitchen 4.0 x 2.5 x 2.4 =24.0
Bedroom One 3.0 x 3.0 x 2.4 =21.6
Bedroom Two 2.75 x 2.75 x 2.4
Bathroom Three
2.5 x 2.0 x 2.4
Total volume = 105.91m3

=18.15
=12.0

Calculation

condensation
This is formed when hot , humid air meets a cold

surface, it condenses onto this surface forming

droplets of water vapour.
What are the effects of condensation in the
internal environment?
Cause timber rot
Encourage mould growth
Produce cold spots
Produce high humidity
Cause corrosion to steelwork
Dampen insulation, reducung its effectiveness

Heat flow through a

structure

Acceptable values
The acceptable values of heat loss or U-values

is a complicated topic and you will need to refer

to the Building regulations Part L Conservation
of fuel and power for guidance on the
acceptable U- values.
Ventilation is linked to the Building Regulation

Part L that it restricts air tightness of modern

structure. Forced ventilation has to be provided
in form of fans in bathrooms and cooking areas

Thermal conductivity
(k)

The amount of heat loss in one second through

1m2 of material, whose thickness is 1 metre
The units are W/mK (watts per metre Kelvin)
P= kA (T1-T2)/ x
A= Area
X= thickness in m and m respectively
T1-T2= temperature difference in C or K
Which can be written as follows
W=k x m x C/m

= W/mC or W/mK

; k = W x m/(m x C)

U-Values
A measurement of the rate of heat loss

through a structure
Thermal resistivity is the reciprocal of thermal
conductivity:
R=1/K

PRINCIPLES OF AIR
COOLING

Principle

A. Expansion Valve
B. Compressor

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Arrangement

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TYPES OF AIR
CONDITIONERS
Room air conditioners
Central air conditioning systems
Heat pumps
Evaporative coolers

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Air Conditioning

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Room air conditioner

Room air conditioners cool rooms rather

than the entire home.

Less expensive to operate than central
units
Their efficiency is generally lower than
that of central air conditioners.
Can be plugged into any 15- or 20-amp,
115-volt household circuit that is not
shared with any other major appliances
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Central Air conditioning

Circulate cool air through a system of

supply and return ducts. Supply ducts and

registers (i.e., openings in the walls, floors,
or ceilings covered by grills) carry cooled
air from the air conditioner to the home.
This cooled air becomes warmer as it
circulates through the home; then it flows
back to the central air conditioner through
return ducts and registers

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Types of Central AC
split-system
an outdoor metal cabinet contains the
condenser and compressor, and an indoor
cabinet contains the evaporator
Packaged
the evaporator, condenser, and
compressor are all located in one cabinet

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Large air conditioning

systems
Outside air is drawn in,

filtered and heated before

it passes through the main
air conditioning devices.
The colored lines in the
lower part of the diagram
show the changes of
temperature and of water
vapor concentration (not
RH) as the air flows
through the system.

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Total Air Conditioning

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Variable fresh air mixer and dust and pollutant

filtration.
Supplementary heating with radiators in the
outer rooms and individual mini heater and
Humidifier in the air stream to each room.

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Sizing Air Conditioners

how large your home is and how many

windows it has;
how much shade is on your home's
windows, walls, and roof;
how much insulation is in your home's
ceiling and walls;
how much air leaks into your home from
the outside; and
how much heat the occupants and
appliances in your home generate
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Energy Consumption
Air conditioners are rated by the number

of British Thermal Units (Btu) of heat they

can remove per hour. Another common
rating term for air conditioning size is the
"ton," which is 12,000 Btu per hour.
Room air conditioners range from 5,500
Btu per hour to 14,000 Btu per hour.

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Energy Efficiency
Today's best air conditioners use 30% to 50%

less energy than 1970s

Even if your air conditioner is only 10 years
old, you may save 20% to 40% of your cooling
energy costs by replacing it with a newer,
more efficient model

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Energy Efficiency
Rating is based on how many Btu per hour

are removed for each watt of power it

draws
For room air conditioners, this efficiency
rating is the Energy Efficiency Ratio, or EER
For central air conditioners, it is the
Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio, or SEER

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Room Air Conditioners

Built after January 1, 1990, need have an EER

of 8.0 or greater
EER of at least 9.0 if you live in a mild climate
EER over 10 for warmer climates

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Central AC
National minimum standards for central air

conditioners require a SEER of

9.7 for single-package and
10.0 for split-systems
Units are available with SEERs reaching nearly

17

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Energy Saving Methods

Locate the air conditioner in a window or wall

area near the center of the room and on the

shadiest side of the house.
Minimize air leakage by fitting the room air
conditioner snugly into its opening and sealing
gaps with a foam weather stripping material.

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Basic Concepts
Purpose of HVAC load estimation
Calculate peak design loads (cooling/heating)
Estimate likely plant/equipment capacity or size
Provide info for HVAC design e.g. load profiles
Form the basis for building energy analysis
Cooling load is our main target
Important for warm climates & summer design
Affect building performance & its first cost

Basic Concepts
Heat transfer mechanism
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Thermal properties of building materials
Overall thermal transmittance (U-value)
Thermal conductivity
Thermal capacity (specific heat)

Basic Concepts
A building survey will help us achieve a

realistic estimate of thermal loads

Orientation of the building
Use of spaces
Physical dimensions of spaces
Ceiling height
Columns and beams
Construction materials
Surrounding conditions
Windows, doors, stairways

Basic Concepts
Building survey (contd)
People (number or density, duration of
occupancy, nature of activity)
Lighting (W/m2, type)
Appliances (wattage, location, usage)
Ventilation (criteria, requirements)
Thermal storage (if any)
Continuous or intermittent operation

Outdoor Design Conditions

They are used to calculate design space loads
Climatic design information
General info: e.g. latitude, longitude, altitude,

atm. pressure
Outdoor design conditions
Derived from statistical analysis of weather data
Typical data can be found in handbooks/databooks,
such as ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbooks

Outdoor Design Conditions

Climatic design conditions from ASHRAE
Previous data & method (before 1997)
For Summer (Jun. to Sep.) & Winter (Dec, Jan, Feb)
Based on 1%, 2.5% & 5% nos. hours of occurrence

New method (ASHRAE Fundamentals 2001):

Based on annual percentiles and cumulative
frequency of occurrence, e.g. 0.4%, 1%, 2%
More info on coincident conditions
Findings obtained from ASHRAE research projects
Data can be found on a relevant CD-ROM

Outdoor Design Conditions

Climatic design conditions (ASHRAE 2001):
Heating and wind design conditions
Heating dry-bulb (DB) temp.
Extreme wind speed
Coldest month wind speed (WS) & mean coincident
dry-bulb temp. (MDB)
Mean wind speed (MWS) & prevailing wind direction
(PWD) to DB
Average of annual extreme max. & min. DB temp. &
standard deviations

Outdoor Design Conditions

Climatic design conditions (ASHRAE):
Cooling and dehumidification design conditions
Cooling DB/MWB: Dry-bulb temp. (DB) + Mean
coincident wet-bulb temp. (MWB)
Evaporation WB/MDB: Web-bulb temp. (WB) + Mean
coincident dry-bulb temp. (MDB)
Dehumidification DP/MDB and HR: Dew-point temp.
(DP) + MDB + Humidity ratio (HR)
Mean daily (diurnal) range of dry-bulb temp.

Outdoor Design Conditions

Other climatic info:
Joint frequency of temp. and humidity

Annual, monthly and hourly data

Degree-days (cooling/heating) & climatic

normals

To classify climate characteristics

Typical year data sets (1 year: 8,760 hours)

For energy calculations & analysis

Indoor Design Criteria

Basic design parameters: (for thermal

comfort)

Air temp. & air movement

Typical: summer 24-26 oC; winter 21-23 oC
Air velocity: summer < 0.25 m/s; winter < 0.15 m/s
Relative humidity

Summer: 40-50% (preferred), 30-65 (tolerable)

Winter: 25-30% (with humidifier); not specified (w/o
humidifier)

See also ASHRAE Standard 55-2004

ASHRAE comfort zone

(*Source: ASHRAE Standard 55-2004)

Indoor Design Criteria

Indoor air quality:
Air contaminants

e.g. particulates, VOC, radon, bioeffluents

Outdoor ventilation rate provided

ASHRAE Standard 62-2001
Air cleanliness (e.g. for processing)

Other design parameters:

Sound level
Pressure differential between the space &
surroundings (e.g. +ve to prevent infiltration)

COOLING LOAD
PRINCIPLES

Cooling Load Principles

Terminology:
Space a volume w/o a partition, or a

partitioned room, or group of rooms

Room an enclosed space (a single load)
Zone a space, or several rooms, or units of
space having some sort of coincident loads or
similar operating characteristics

Thermal zoning

Cooling Load Principles

Space and equipment loads
Space heat gain (sensible, latent, total)
Space cooling load / space heating load
Space heat extraction rate
Cooling coil load / heating coil load
Refrigeration load
Instantaneous heat gain
Convective heat
Radiative heat (heat absorption)

Convective and radiative heat in a conditioned space

Conversion of heat gain into cooling load

Cooling Load Principles

Instantaneous heat gain vs space cooling

loads

They are NOT the same

Effect of heat storage

Night shutdown period

HVAC is switched off. What happens to the space?

Cool-down or warm-up period

When HVAC system begins to operate
Conditioning period

Space air temperature within the limits

Thermal Storage Effect in Cooling Load from Lights

Cooling Load Principles

Load profile
Shows the variation of space load
Such as 24-hr cycle
What factors will affect load profile?
Useful for operation & energy analysis
Peak load and block load
Peak load = max. cooling load
Block load = sum of zone loads at a specific

time

Block load and thermal zoning

Cooling Load Components

Cooling load calculations
To determine volume flow rate of air system
To size the coil and HVAC&R equipment
To provide info for energy calculations/analysis

Two categories:
External loads
Internal loads

Cooling Load Components

External loads

Heat gain through exterior walls and roofs

Solar heat gain through fenestrations (windows)
Conductive heat gain through fenestrations
Heat gain through partitions & interior doors
Infiltration of outdoor air

Cooling Load Components

Internal loads
People
Electric lights
Equipment and appliances

Sensible & latent cooling loads

Convert instantaneous heat gain into cooling load
Which components have only sensible loads?

[Source: ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook 2001]

Cooling Load Components

Cooling coil load consists of:

Space cooling load (sensible & latent)

Supply system heat gain (fan + air duct)
Return system heat gain (plenum + fan + air duct)
Load due to outdoor ventilation rates (or
ventilation load)

How to construct a summer air conditioning

cycle on a psychrometric chart?

Cooling coil load

Cooling load

Schematic diagram of typical return air plenum

Cooling Load Components

Space cooling load
To determine supply air flow rate & size of air
system, ducts, terminals, diffusers
It is a component of cooling coil load
Infiltration heat gain is an instant. cooling load

Cooling coil load

To determine the size of cooling coil &
refrigeration system
Ventilation load is a coil load

Heating Load
Design heating load
Max. heat energy required to maintain winter
indoor design temp.
Usually occurs before sunrise on the coldest days
Include transmission losses & infiltration/ventilation

Assumptions:
All heating losses are instantaneous heating loads
Solar heat gains & internal loads usually not considered
Latent heat often not considered (unless w/ humidifier)

References
ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2001
Chapter 26 Ventilation and Infiltration
Chapter 27 Climatic Design Information
Chapter 28 Residential Cooling and Heating
Load Calculations
Chapter 29 Nonresidential Cooling and
Heating Load Calculations
Chapter 30 Fenestration
Chapter 31 Energy Estimation and Modeling
Methods

References
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

Engineering (Wang and Norton, 2000)

Chapter 6 Load Calculations

Handbook of Air Conditioning and

Refrigeration, 2nd ed. (Wang, 2001)

Chapter 6 Load Calculations