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Unit 1

Human
Resource
Management
Human resource
Resource management
Human Resource Management

What
is
human
management?

resource

The process of acquiring, training,


appraising,
and
compensating
employees, and of attending to their
labor relations, health and safety, and
fairness concerns.

HRM: Objectives
Primary objective of HRM is to ensure the availability of
a competent and willing workforce to an organization
HRM objectives are four fold- societal, organizational,
functional and personal

Societal objectives
To be ethically and socially responsible to the needs and
challenges of the society while minimizing the negative
impact of such demands upon the organization
To ensure that the organization becomes socially
responsive

Organizational objectives
To recognize the role of HRM in bringing about
organizational effectiveness
To make sure that HRM is not a stand-alone department,
but rather a means to assist the organization reach its
primary objective

Functional Objectives
To maintain the departments contribution at a level
appropriate to the organizations needs
Remind the HRM that it has only functional value and
should not become too expensive at the cost of the
organization it serves

Personal objectives
To assist employees in achieving their personal goals, at
least insofar as these goals enhance the individuals
contribution to the organization
Assist employees in achieving their personal goals

In order to realize the objectives stated above, HRM


must perform certain functions
There is a correlation between the objectives and the
functions
Some functions help realize specific objectives

HRM Objectives and Functions


HRM Objectives

Supporting Functions

1.

Societal objectives

1. Legal compliance
2. Benefits
3. Union-management relations

2.

Organizational objectives

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

3.

Functional objectives

1. Appraisal
2. Placement
3. Assessment

4.

Personal objectives

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Human resource planning


Employee relations
Selection
Training and development
Appraisal
Placement
Assessment

Training and development


Appraisal
Placement
Compensation
Assessment

Human Resources Management: Scope and


Function

Recruitment

Recruitment
The process by which a job vacancy
is identified and potential employees are notified.
The nature of the recruitment process
is regulated and subject
to employment law.
Main forms of recruitment through advertising in
newspapers, magazines, trade papers and internal
vacancy lists.

Recruitment
Job description outline of the role
of the job holder
Person specification outline
of the skills and qualities required
of the post holder
Applicants may demonstrate their suitability through
application form, letter or curriculum vitae (CV)

Selection

Selection
The process of assessing candidates and appointing a
post holder
Applicants short listed
most suitable candidates selected
Selection process
varies according to organisation:

Selection
Interview most common method
Psychometric testing assessing the personality of the applicants
will they fit in?
Aptitude testing assessing the skills
of applicants
In-tray exercise activity based around what the applicant will be
doing, e.g. writing a letter to a disgruntled customer
Presentation looking for different skills
as well as the ideas of the candidate

Employment Legislation

Employment Legislation

Even in a small business, the legislation


relating to employees is important
chemicals used in a hairdressing salon for
example have to be carefully stored and
handled to protect employees.

Increasingly important aspect of the HRM role

Wide range
of areas for attention

Adds to the cost of the business

Discrimination
Crucial aspects
of employment
legislation:
Race
Gender
Disability

Disability is no longer an issue for employers


to ignore, they must take reasonable steps
to accommodate and recruit disabled workers.
Copyright: Mela, http://www.sxc.hu

Discipline

Discipline
Firms cannot just sack workers
Wide range of procedures and steps
in dealing with workplace conflict

Informal meetings
Formal meetings
Verbal warnings
Written warnings
Grievance procedures
Working with external agencies

Development

Development
Developing the employee
can be regarded as investing
in a valuable asset
A source of motivation
A source of helping the employee fulfil potential

Training

Training
Similar to development:
Provides new skills for the employee
Keeps the employee up to date
with changes in the field
Aims to improve efficiency
Can be external or in-house

Rewards Systems

Rewards Systems
The system of pay and benefits used by the firm to
reward workers
Money not the only method
Fringe benefits
Flexibility at work
Holidays, etc.

Trade Unions

Trade Unions
Importance of building relationships with employee
representatives
Role of Trade Unions has changed
Importance of consultation
and negotiation and working
with trade unions
Contributes to smooth change management and
leadership

Productivity

Productivity
Measuring performance:
How to value the workers contribution
Difficulty in measuring some types of output
especially in the service industry
Appraisal
Meant to be non-judgmental
Involves the worker and a nominated appraiser
Agreeing strengths, weaknesses and ways forward
to help both employee and organisation

HRD: Conceptual Basis


Of all the resources, the human resource is the most significant and the only active
factor of production
HRD is the key to enhancing and effective utilization of intellectual, technological and
entrepreneurial skills of human resources
HRD is the process of helping people to acquire competencies and skills so as to
ensure their usefulness to the organisation in terms of both present and future
organisational conditions. HRD also helps the employees understand their own
capabilities better so that they can best utilise them and also fulfil their expectation
both professional and personal.

In an organisational context HRD is a process by which the employees of an organisation


are helped in a continuous and planned way to :
acquire or sharpen capabilities required to perform various functions associated with their
present or expected future roles,
develop their general capabilities as individuals and team, and discover and exploit their
inner potential for their own and/or organisational development purposes,
develop an organisational culture in which supervisor-subordinate relationships, team
work, and collaboration among sub-units are strong and contribute to the professional wellbeing, motivation, and pride of employees.

HRD is defined as the development of people by providing the right environment where
each individual may grow to his fullest potentials
Megginson viewed human resources as the total knowledge, skills, creative abilities,
talents and aptitudes of an organizations workforce as well as the values, attitudes and
beliefs of the individual involved

Beliefs of HRD
1. Human resource is the most important asset in the organization
2. Unlike other resources, human resource can be developed and increased to an unlimited
extent
3. A healthy climate, characterized by the values of openness, enthusiasm, trust, mutuality
and collaboration is essential for developing human resource
4. HRD can be planned and monitored in ways that are beneficial both to the individuals and
the organization
5. Employees feel committed to their work and the organization, if the organization
perpetuates a feeling of belonging
6. Employees feel highly motivated if the organization provides for satisfaction of their
basic and higher level needs
7. Employee commitment is increased with the opportunity to discover and use ones
capabilities and potential in ones work

8. It is every mangers responsibility to ensure development and utilization of the capabilities


of subordinates to create a healthy and motivating work climate and to set examples for
subordinates to follow
9. The higher the level of manager, the more attention should be paid to the HRD function in
order to ensure its effectiveness
10. The maintenance of a healthy organizational climate and the development of its human
resource are the responsibility of every organization

Objectives of HRD
i.

Provide an opportunity and comprehensive framework for the


development of human resources in the organization for full
expression of their talents and manifest potentials

ii. Develop the constructive mind and overall personality of each


employee
iii. Develop each individuals capabilities to perform the present job and
to handle future likely roles
iv. Develop and maintain high motivation level of employees
v. Strengthen superior-subordinate relationships
vi. Develop the sense of team spirit, team work and inter-team
collaboration
vii. Develop the organizational health, culture and climate
viii.General systematic information about human resources

Need and significance of HRD


Need of HRD is felt to create a climate which will improve the work life
by overcoming monotony, ensuring better communication and creation
of familiar sort of work conditions where creativity of all the members
comes into full play
Focus of HRD essentially is on enabling people to self-actualize through
a systematic process of developing their existing potentialities and
creation of new ones, unfolding and tapping potentialities of people both
in the present and in the future

Benefits of HRD
i.

It helps in the integrated growth of employees

ii. It helps employees to know their strengths and weaknesses and thus
enable them to improve their performance and that of the organization
iii. It facilitates the creation of an environment where opportunities are
available for fuller utilization of the known potentials of the employees.
The climate of such an organization is one of mutuality, trust,
collaboration, openness, etc.
iv. It generates valid data about employees for personnel functions like
training, placement, selection, promotion, etc
v. It insists on the provision of feedback and guidance by the superior to
the employees for the improvement of their performance
vi. It leads to greater organizational effectiveness

HRD instruments, processes and


outcomes
3

HRD Mechanisms
or
Sub-systems
or Instruments

HRD Process & HRD


Climate Variables

HRD Outcomes
Variables

Role Clarity

Planning
of
Development by Every
Employee

Awareness
of
Competencies Required
for Job Performance
Proactive Orientation
More Trust
Collaboration & Team
Work
Authenticity
Openness
Risk-taking
Value Generation
Clarification of Norms
and Standards

Increased
Communication

More
Objective
Rewards

Generation
of
Objective,
Data
on

More Competent
People

Higher
Workcommitment & Job
Involvement

More
Problem
Solving
Better Utilisation of
Human Resources

Higher
Jobsatisfaction and Work
Motivation
Better Generation
of Internal Resources

Better
Organisational Health
More Team Work,
Synergy and Respect
for Each Other

HRD Department

Performance
Appraisal
Review Discussions,
Feedback Counselling
Sessions

Role
Analysis
Exercises

Potential
Development
Exercises
Training

Communication
Policies
Job Rotations
OD Exercises
Rewards

Job-enrichment
Programmes
Other Mechanisms

4
Organisation
al
Effectiveness
Dimensions

Higher
Productivity
Growth and
Diversification
Cost Reduction
More Profits
Better Image

Other factors

Other factors

Personnel
Policies,
Top
Management
Styles,
Investments on HRD. Top
Managements
Commitments,
History,
Previous
Culture,
Line
Managers Interest etc.

Environment,
Technology,
Resource
Availability, History,
Nature of Business
etc.

A systematic presentation of linkages between


HRD instruments, processes, outcomes and
organizational effectiveness

A Simplified HRD Model


Humanresourcedevelopmentplansorinterventions

Individualdevelopmentplan

Organizationaldevelopmentplan

Skill+Knowledge+Attitudedevelopment

Workculture+Developmentplans+
Facilitydevelopment+qualityofworking
life

Trainedanddevelopedemployees
Healthyorganizationalclimate
Organizationaleffectiveness

HRD FUNCTIONS

Providing skill input to apprentices and trainees


Identifying training needs and imparting training
Outside deputation for competency enhancement
Competency mapping
Organizational development activities
Conducting sessions and workshops
Training and development (T&D)

HRM

HRD

HRM deals with all aspects of the human HRD only deals with the development
resources function
part.

HRM is concerned with


rewards among others

recruitment, HRD is concerned with employeeskills


development.

HRMfunctionsaremostlyformal

HRM is a
process.

routine

and

HRDfunctionscanbeinformallike
mentorship.

administrative HRD is continuous process

Difference Between Personnel


Management & HRM
Dimension

Personnel Management

1.

Employment contract

Careful
delineation
written contracts

2.

Rules

Importance
clear rules

3.

Guide
action

4.

Behavior referent

5.

Managerial task vis--vis Monitoring


labor

Nurturing

6.

Key relations

Labor management

Customer

7.

Initiatives

Piecemeal

Integrated

8.

Speed of decision

Slow

Fast

to

of

Human
Management

Resource

of Aim to go beyond contract

devising Can do outlook, impatience


with rules

management Procedures
Norms/customs
practices

Business need
and Values/mission

Dimension

Personnel Management

Human Resource
Management

11.

Prized management
skill

Negotiation

Facilitation

12.

Selection

Separate, marginal task

Integrated, key task

13.

Pay

Job evaluation (fixed grades)

Performance related

14.

Conditions

Separately negotiated

Harmonization

15.

Labor management

Collective bargaining
contracts

Individual contracts

16.

Job categories and


grades

Many

Few

17.

Job design

Division of labor

Team work

18.

Conflict handling

Reach temporary truce

Manage climate and culture

19.

Training and
development

Controlled access to courses

Learning companies

20.

Focus of attention
for interventions

Personnel procedures

Wide-ranging cultural,
structural and personnel
strategies

Dimension

Personnel management

Human Resource Management

21.

Respect for
employees

Labor is treated as a tool


which is expendable and
replaceable

People are treated as assets to be


used for the benefit of an
organization, its employees and the
society as a whole

22.

Shared interests

Interests of the
Mutuality of interests
organization are uppermost

23.

Evolution

Precedes HRM

Latest in the evolution of the


subject

24.

Locus of control

External

Internal

25.

Organizing
principles

Mechanistic
Top-down
Centralized

Organic
Bottom-up
Decentralized

Organization of HR Department
Two issues become relevant in a discussion on organization of an
HR department
1. Place of the HR department in the overall set-up
2. Composition of the HR department itself
.Status of the HR department in the overall organizational
structure depends on the,
.Size of the firm
.Nature of business
.Management-philosophy
.Global presence

Size of Business
In small start up organizations where employee strength is around 100, the
HR activities are very basic
The functions are largely transactional
Mid-sized firms with a head count of 200-500 each will have a structured
HR function
Key HR activities are clearly established and responsibilities assigned
Service Level Agreements (SLAs) are defined for HR deliverables and
tracked to ensure that business objectives are not compromised
In large organizations with employee strength of 1000 to 3000, HR function
is highly matured and organized
HR processes are well documented, defined and implemented meticulously
Sophisticated HR tools are in place and technology is leveraged to ensure
that HR is contributing to the goal realization

HR organizational structure is more advanced, defining centers


of excellence for each of HR activities
Multinational organization is where the HR structure functions
at its most matured level with clear alignment to business
priorities and strategies
HR functions are matrixes and drive global and local initiatives
HR has a place at the table and is a party to each and every
business strategy and decision

Nature of business
Nature of business largely determines the HR department
structure
HR functions are commonly distributed to three categories
i.

HR generalists who carry out generic activities like payroll,


leave and benefits

ii. HR specialists who assume responsibility for areas like hiring,


training and development etc
iii. HR heads who head either functions across locations or head
HR for a divisions within an organization
Knowledge based organizations witness highly sophisticated
HR structures

Philosophy of senior management


The philosophy of founders/ seniors managers
organization defines the nature of HR function

of

the

Global presence
Organizations with global presence tend have fully
blown and highly elevated HR structures

HRM in a small-scale unit


Owner/mana
ger
Production
manager

Sales
manager

Office manager

Personnel
Assistant

Accountant

HRM in a large-scale unit


Chairman and
managing director

Director
operations

Director
finance

Director
Personnel/
HRM

Director
Marketing

Director
R&D

What Managers Do
Managers (or administrators)
Individuals who achieve goals through other
people.

Managerial
ManagerialActivities
Activities
Make
Makedecisions
decisions
Allocate
Allocateresources
resources
Direct
Directactivities
activitiesofofothers
othersto
to
attain
attaingoals
goals

Where Managers Work


Organization
A consciously coordinated social
unit, composed of two or more
people, that functions on a
relatively continuous basis to
achieve a common goal or set of
goals.

Management Functions
Planning
Planning

Organizing
Organizing

Management
Management
Functions
Functions
Controlling
Controlling

Leading
Leading

Management Functions (contd)


Planning
A process that includes defining
goals, establishing strategy, and
developing plans to coordinate
activities.

Management Functions (contd)


Organizing
Determining what tasks are to be
done, who is to do them, how the
tasks are to be grouped, who reports
to whom, and where decisions are to
be made.

Management Functions (contd)


Leading
A function that includes motivating
employees, directing others,
selecting the most effective
communication channels, and
resolving conflicts.

Management Functions (contd)


Controlling
Monitoring activities to ensure they are
being accomplished as planned and
correcting any significant deviations.

Mintzbergs Managerial Roles

Source: Adapted from The Nature of Managerial Work by H. Mintzberg. Copyright 1973
by H. Mintzberg. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education.

Mintzbergs Managerial Roles


(contd)

Source: Adapted from The Nature of Managerial Work by H. Mintzberg. Copyright 1973
by H. Mintzberg. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education.

Mintzbergs Managerial Roles


(contd)

Source: Adapted from The Nature of Managerial Work by H. Mintzberg. Copyright 1973
by H. Mintzberg. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education.

Functions of HR
Planning
Staffing
Developing
Monitoring
Maintaining
Managing relationships
Managing change
Evaluating

Management Skills
Technical skills
The ability to apply specialized
knowledge or expertise.

Human skills
The ability to work with,
understand, and motivate other
people, both individually and in
groups.

Conceptual Skills
The mental ability to analyze and
diagnose complex situations.

Effective Versus Successful Managerial


Activities (Luthans)
1.
1.Traditional
Traditionalmanagement
management
Decision
Decisionmaking,
making,planning,
planning,and
andcontrolling
controlling

2.
2.Communication
Communication
Exchanging
Exchangingroutine
routineinformation
informationand
andprocessing
processingpaperwork
paperwork

3.
3.Human
Humanresource
resourcemanagement
management
Motivating,
Motivating,disciplining,
disciplining,managing
managingconflict,
conflict,staffing,
staffing,and
and
training
training

4.
4.Networking
Networking
Socializing,
Socializing,politicking,
politicking,and
andinteracting
interactingwith
withothers
others

HRM Models
Five major models have been identified and all these serve four
purposes.
1. They provide an analytical framework for studying HRM
2. They legitimize certain HRM practices; a key issue here being the
distinctiveness of HRM practices: It is not the presence of
selection or training but a distinctive approach to selection or
training that matters
3. They provide a characterization of HRM that establishes variables
and relationship to be researched
4. They serve as a heuristic device-something to help us discover and
understand the world for explaining the nature and significance of
key HR practices

The Fomburn, Tichy and Devanna


Model
Human resource
development

Selection

Appraisal

Rewards

Organizational
effectiveness

First model dates back to 1984


Emphasizes just four functions and their
interrelatedness
It ignores all environmental and contingency factors
that impact HR functions
First model has set the stage for other theories to
emerge
Simple model serves as a heuristic framework for
explaining the nature and significance of the key HR
activities
Emphasizes interrelationship among the four activities

The Harvard Model


Stakeholder
interests
Shareholders
Management
Employee groups
Government
Community
Unions
Situational
factors
Workforce
characteristics
Business strategy
and conditions
Management
philosophy
Labor market
Unions
Task technology
Laws and societal

Human
resource
management
policy choices
Employee
influence
Human resource
flow
Reward systems
Work systems

Human
resource
outcomes
Commitment
Competence
Congruence
Cost-effectiveness

Long-term
consequences
Individual wellbeing
Organizational
effectiveness
Societal wellbeing

Claims to be comprehensive in as much as it seeks to


comprise six critical components of HRM

The Guest Model

HRM
STRATEG
IES

HRM
Practices
Hiring
Training
Appraisal
Compensat
ion
Relations

HR
Outcomes
Commitme
nt
Quality
Flexibility

Behavioral
outcomes
Motivation
Cooperation
Organizati
onal
citizenship

Performance
outcomes
Positive
Productivity
Innovation
Quality
Negative
Low
productivity
Absenteeism
Turnover

Financial
outcomes
Profits
ROI

Developed by David Guest in 1997


HR manager has specific strategies to begin with
thereby it will result in outcomes
This model clearly maps out the field of HRM and
delineates the inputs and outcomes
How HRM can contribute to organizational effectiveness
is clearly shown in the model
But the dynamics of people management are so
complex
that
no
model
can
capture
them
comprehensively

Warwick Model

Outer context
Socioeconomic
Technical
Political-legal
Competitive

Business strategy content


Objectives
Product
market
Strategy and
tactics

Inner context
Culture
Structure
Politics/
leadership
Task-technology
Business outputs

HRM content
HR flows
Work systems
Reward
systems
Employee
relations

HRM context
Role
Definition
Organization
HR outputs

The Ulrich Model


Future/Strategic
Focus

Strategic Partner

Change Champion
People

Process
Employee Champion

Day-to-day
Operational Focus

Administrative

Linking Ulrichs Roles to


Deliverables
Metaphor
Role
Activity

Deliverable

Strategic partner

Management of
strategic resources

Aligning HR with
business strategy

Executive strategy

Administrative
expert

Management of
firms infrastructure

Re-engineering

Building an efficient
infrastructure

Employee champion

Management of
employee
contribution

Listening to
employees

Increasing employee
commitment and
capability

Change agent

Management of
transformation and
change

Managing changing
environment

Creating a renewed
infrastructure

Personnel Policies and Principles


Policies are plans of action
Organizations need to evolve HR policies as they ensure
consistency and uniformity in treating people
They help motivate and build loyalty
Policies become benchmarks to compare and evaluate
performance

When the management drafts a policy statement to cover


some features of its personnel programmes, the statement
may often contain an expression of philosophy and principle
as well
Although it is perfectly legitimate for an organization to
include its philosophy, principles and policy in one policy
expression, it is desirable for a student of HRM to separate a
principle from a policy
A policy statement is more specific and commits the
management to a definite course of action
A policy does not spell out the detailed procedure by which it
has to be implemented
That is the role of a procedure

A policy should be stated in terms broad enough for it to be


applicable in varying situations
Lower level managers who apply a policy must be allowed
some discretion in carrying out the policy
A rigid and excessively detailed policy statement might cause
injustice, if not granted some latitude

Evolution of HRM
Emerged during 1970s
Concern for the welfare of workers in the management of
business enterprises has been in existence since ages
Kautilyas Arthahastra states that there existed a sound base
for systematic management of resources as early as the 4th
century BC
In 1800 BC minimum wage rate and incentive wage plan
were included in the Babylonian Code of Hammurabai
In our country, the growth of the subject has been traced back
to 1920s
Royal Commission (1931) recommended the appointment of
laborwelfare officers to deal with the selection of workers and

Two professional bodies, the Indian Institute of Personnel Management


(IIPM) and the National Institute of Labor Management (NILM), were set up
These two places were the premier centers of traditional industry (jute and
cotton respectively) in pre-independent India
During the 1960s, the personnel function began to expand beyond the
welfare aspect, with labor welfare, IR and personnel administration
integrating into the emerging profession called personnel management
(PM)
The massive thrust given to the heavy industry in the context of planned
economic development, particularly since the Second Five-Year Plan and
the accelerated growth of the public sector in the national economy
resulted in a shift in focus towards professionalization of management
By the 1970s, the focus shifted from a concern for welfare to a focus on
efficiency
In the 1980s, professionals began to talk about new technologies, HRM
challenges and HRD

Two professional bodies, IIPM and NILM, merged in 1980 to


form National Institute of Personnel Management (NIPM)
Technology entered (HR) domain in the 1980s, allowing HRM
professionals to focus less on administrative work and more on
strategic issues
With the advent of sophisticated human resources information
and communication systems, HRM was getting a better handle
on its resources, and thus, the effectiveness of its programs
In the 1990s, the emphasis shifted to human values and
productivity through people
Reflecting this trend the American Society for Personnel
Administration (ASPA) was renamed as the Society for Human
Resources Management (SHRM)
Beginning in the 1920s, the subject of people management has

Evolution of HRM in India


Period

Development
Status

Outlook

Emphasis

Status

1920s-1930s

Beginning

Pragmatism of
capitalists

Statutory,
welfare,
paternalism

Clerical

1940s-1960s

Struggling for
recognition

Technical,
legalistic

Introduction of
techniques

Administrative

1970s-1980s

Achieving
sophistication

Professional,
legalistic,
impersonal

Regulatory,
conforming,
imposition of
standards on
other functions

Managerial

1990s

Promising

Philosophical

Human values,
productivity
through people

Executive

Line and staff aspects of HRM


Authority: The right to make decisions, direct others work, and
give orders
Line authority: the authority exerted by an HR manager by
directing the activities of the people in his or her own department
and in service areas (like the plant cafeteria)
Staff authority: staff authority gives the manager the right
(authority) to advise other managers or employees
Line manager: a manager who is authorized to direct the work of
subordinates and is responsible for accomplishing the
organizations tasks
Staff manager: a manager who assists and advise line managers

Line authority gives managers the right (or authority) to


issue orders to other managers or employees. It creates a
superior-subordinate relationship
Staff authority gives the manager the right (authority) to
advise other managers or employees. It creates an advisory
relationship
Line managers have line authority
Staff managers have staff authority. They cannot issue orders
down the chain of command
In popular usage, managers associate line managers with
managing functions (like sales or production) that the
company needs to exist
Staff managers generally run departments that are advisory

Human resource managers are staff managers


They assist and advise line managers in areas like
recruiting, hiring and compensation
However, line managers still have human resource
duties

Line managers human resource


duties
1. Placing the right person on the right job
2. Starting new employees in the organization (orientation)
3. Training employees for job that are new to them
4. Improving the job performance of each person
5. Gaining creative
relationships

cooperation

and

developing

6. Interpreting the companys policies and procedures


7. Controlling labor costs
8. Developing the abilities of each person
9. Creating and maintaining department morale
10.Protecting employees health and physical condition

smooth

working

Human resource managers duties


1. Line function
2. A coordinative function
3. Staff (assist and advise) functions

Examples of HRM specialties include


Recruiters
Human resource development specialties
Job analysts
Compensation managers
Training specialists
Employment/industrial relations specialist
Employee welfare officers

Image and qualities of HR Manager


Fairness and firmness
Tact and resourcefulness
Sympathy and consideration
Knowledge of labor and other terms
Broad social outlook
Academic qualifications
Others

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