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Applying Thermodynamics
Pressure
The reading on a mercury manometer at 70 oF (open
to the atmosphere at one end) is 25,62 in. The loc
al acceleration of gravity is 32,243 ft/s 2. Atmospher
ic pressure is 19,86 inHg. What is the absolute pre
ssure in (psia) being measured? The density of m
ercury at 70 oF is 13,543 g/cm3.
Unit Conversion
Convert of physical parameters below:
500 oF = .. K = .. oC = .. R
R = 8,314 J/mol.K = .. Btu/lbmol.R = .. cmHg.cm
3
/mol.K = .. kPa.m3/mol.K
4500 kW = .. Btu/jam = ..lbf.ft/detik = .. kgf.m/
detik
dW F dl
W P dV
V1
2
A gas is confined in a 0.47-m-diameter cylinder by piston, on
which rest a weight. The mass of the piston and weight tog
ether is 150 kg. The local acceleration of gravity is 9.813 m
s-2, and atmospheric pressure is 101.57 kPa.
a. What is the force in newton exerted on the gas by atmosp
here, the piston and the weight, assuming no friction betw
een the piston and cylinder
b. What is the pressure of the gas in kPa
c. If the gas in the cylinder is heated, it expands, pushing the
piston & weight upward. If the piston & weight are raised 1
5 cm, what is the work done by the gas in kJ
d. What is the change in potential energy in kJ of the piston
& weight?
Work
An automobile having a mass of 1,250 kg is travelin
g at 40 m s-1. What is its kinetic energy in kJ? How
much work must be done to bring it to a stop?
Liquid water at 0oC and atmospheric pressure has a
density of 1.000 g/cm3. At this condition, ice has a
density of 0.917g/cm3.How much work is done at t
hese conditions by 1 kg of ice as it melts to liquid
water?
Internal Energy U
Kinetic & potential energy are energy which the substance m
ay posses as a result of its macroscopic position or motion.
They can be regarded as external form of energy because
their numerical values refer to the surroundings.
In contrast, internal energy of a substance refers to the energ
y of the molecule making up the substance. Although absol
ute values of internal energy are unknown, this is not a dis
advantage in thermodynamic analysis, because only chan
ges in internal energy is required.
energy of surroundings Q W
energy of system
U E
U E Q W
U Q W
dU dQ dW
dP P
P1
U2
dU U
dW W
U1
Example
A gas is confined in a cylinder by a piston. The initialpressure
of the gas is 7 bar, and the volume is 0.1 m 3. The piston is
held in place by latches in the cylinder wall. The whole app
aratus is placed in air at standard atmospheric pressure of
101.33 kPa.
What is the energy change of the apparatus if the retaining la
tches are removed so that the gas suddenly expands to do
uble its initial value? The piston is again held by latches at
the end of the process. Assume the rate of heat exchange
between the apparatus and the surrounding air slow comp
ared with the rate at which the process occur.
Intensive
Entalphy H
Entalphy is another thermodynamic function defined as:
H U PV
Since U, P & V are all state functions, H must also be a state fu
nction.
dH dU d(PV )
H U (PV )
Like V & U, H is an extensive property
Specific entalphy, h, is of course, an intensive property
Example
Calculate U and H for 1 kg of water when it is vap
orized at the constant temperature of 100 oC and t
he constant pressure of 101.33 kPa. The specific
volumes of liquid & vapor water at these condition
s are 0.00104 & 1.673 m3/kg. For this change, hea
t in the amount of 2256.9 kJ is added to the water.
Problem 2.4
Liquid water at 100oC and 1 bar has an internal en
ergy (on an arbitrary scale) of 419.0 kJ/kg & a spe
cific volume of 1.044 cm3/g.
a.What is its enthalpy?
b. The water is brought to the vapor state at 200 oC
and 800 kPa, where its entalphy is 2838.6 kJ/k
g and its specific volume is 260.79 cm 3/g. Calcul
ate H & U for the process.
E K u 2 u1 12 u 2
1
2
1
2
E P z 2 g z1g gz
W1 P1A1
V1
P1V1
A1
W2 P2 A 2
V2
P2 V2
A2
W Ws W2 W1
u 2
U
gz Q Ws P2 V2 P1V1
2
u 2
H
gz Q Ws
2
H Q Ws
Example
Air at 1 bar & 25oC enters a compressor at low veloc
ity, discharges at 3 bar, & enters a nozzle in which
it expands to a final velocity of 600 ms -1 at the initi
al conditions of pressure & temperature. If the wo
rk of compression is 240 kJ/kg of air, how much h
eat must be removed during compression?
Problem 2.10
Liquid water at 70 oF flows in a straight horizontal pipe in whic
h there is no exchange of either work or heat with the surro
undings. Its velocity is 30 ft/s in a pipe with an internal dia
meter of 1 in until it flows into a section where the pipe dia
meter abruptly increases.
a. What is the entalphy change of water if the downstream d
iameter is 1.5 in?
b. What is the entalphy change of water if the downstream d
iameter is 3 in?
c. What is the maximum change in entalphy for an enlargem
ent in the pipe?
Problem 2.11
Water flows through a horizontal coil heated from th
e outside by high-temperature flue gases. As it pa
sses through the coil the water changes state from
2 atm & 180 oF to 1 atm & 250 oF. Its entering velo
city is 10 ft/s & its its exit velocity is 600 ft/s.
Determine the heat transferred through the coil peru
nit mass of water.
Entalphy of the inlet and outlet water streams are:
Inlet: 148 Btu/lbm
Outlet: 1168.8 Btu/lbm
T, oC
x, %
, m3/kg
h, kJ/kg
s, kJ/kg.K
300
70
...
1200
200
800
4000
0.142
1500
6.0689
Example
To operate a generator, the utility unit generates amount mechanic ener
gy by operating a turbine. The turbine uses steam as working fluid.
Assume that turbine works adiabatically and reversibly. Steam enter
s the turbine at 1.2 MPa and 250 oC and leave the turbine at saturat
ed condition with pressure and vapor quality of 300 kPa and 96.92%
, respectively. Electrical power produced by generator is 10 MW at m
echanical efficiency of 80%.
a. Calculate the change of enthalpy and internal energy of steam (i
n kJ/kg)!
b. Calculate the required mass flow rate of steam (in ton/hour)!
c. Determine the steams temperature leave a turbine (in oC)!
Example
Water at 200oF is pumped from a storage tank at the
rate of 50 gpm. The motor for the pump supplies
work at the rate of 2 hp. The water passes through
a heat exchanger where it gives up heat at the rat
e of 40,000 Btu/min, & is delivered to a second sto
rage tank at an elevation 50 ft above the first tank.
What is the temperature of the water delivered to t
he second tank?
Irreversible Process
An irreversible process is a process that cannot return both the
system and the surroundings to their original conditions. That
is, the system & the surroundings would not return to their ori
ginal conditions if the process was reversed. For example, a
n automobile engine does not give back the fuel it took to dri
ve up a hill as it coasts back down the hill.
There are many factors that make a process irreversible. Four
of the most common causes of irreversibility are friction, unre
strained expansion of a fluid, heat transfer through a finite te
mperature difference, and mixing of two different substance
s. These factors are present in real, irreversible processes a
nd prevent these processes from being reversible.
Problem 2.17
The internal energy Ut of an amount of gas is given
by the equation:
t
t
U 1.5PV
Problem 2.19
The path followed by a gas during a particular mechanically re
versible process is described by the equation:
P aV t c
Where a & c are constants. In the initial state, P1 = 60 bar and
Vt1 =0.002 m3. In the final state, P2 = 20 bar and Vt2 = 0.004
m3. During the process, heat in the amount of 5000 J is tran
sferred to the gas. Determine W and Ut for the process.
Constant Volume
2
P dV 0
Q U
Heat capacity:
U
CV
T V
T2
Q U C V dT
T1
U Q PdV
1
Constant Pressure
U Q PV
H U PV
Heat capacity:
H
CP
T P
T2
Q H C P dT
T1
Q H
Heat Capacity
Five moles of nitrogen at 80oC is contained in a rigid vessel. How
much heat must be added to the system to raise its temperature t
o 300oC if the vessel has a negligible heat capacity?
If the mass of the vessel is 100 kg and if its heat capacity is 0.5 J/g o
C, how much heat is required?
Three moles of nitrogen at 230oC is contained in a piston/cylinder ar
rangement. How much heat must be extracted from this system,
which is kept at constant pressure, to cool it to 80 oC if the heat ca
pacity of the piston & cylinder is neglected?
Take CV = 20.8 and CP = 29.1 J/moloC for nitrogen gas.
Heat Capacity
Five moles of nitrogen at 100oF is contained in a rigid vessel. How
much heat must be added to the system to raise its temperature t
o 400oF if the vessel has a negligible heat capacity?
If the mass of the vessel is 250 lbm and has a heat capacity of 0.12
Btu/lbmoF how much heat is required?
Three moles of nitrogen at 450oF is contained in a piston/cylinder ar
rangement. How much heat must be extracted from this system,
which is kept at constant pressure, to cool it to 100 oF if the heat c
apacity of the piston & cylinder is neglected?
Take CV = 5 and CP = 7 Btu/lbmol oF for nitrogen gas.