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Welcome to

Fired Heater Training!


The course is designed to give
you some background
information needed to operate a
fired heater

Agenda
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Introduction
Air/Fuel Ratios
Fundamentals of Burners
Fundamentals of Furnaces
Furnace Tuning and Use of Analyzer
NOx and Advanced Burner Design
Field Tuning of Heaters
Q & A and Wrap-up

Heater and Burner Operation

Course Objective
To ensure that everyone fully

understands how burners and


heaters work.

Course Topics
Combustion Essentials
Basic Burner Designs
Furnace Types
Draught
Heater Tuning
Low NOx Burner Designs

Combustion Essentials

What is Combustion?
A chemical reaction between fuel and
oxygen producing heat.
Air is usually the source of oxygen.
The chemical reaction produces flue
gases

What Is Required For


Combustion?
Three Elements:
Fuel
Air
Source of Ignition

Fuel Components
Gas, Oil and Coal are all basically a

mix of Hydrocarbons.
During combustion these break down
progressively as some parts burn
more easily.
The most important components are
Carbon and Hydrogen compounds.

Other Components
In addition to the Carbon and

Hydrogen many fuels contain Sulphur.


Sulphur also burns but produces
hazardous products.
Liquid and solid fuels can contain other
non-combustibles which form ash.
Nitrogen may be present as a gas or in
compound form in liquid/solid fuels.

Chemical Formulas
In formulas we will use the following basic
components
Carbon = C
Hydrogen = H2
Oxygen = O2
Nitrogen = N2
Water = H2O
Carbon Dioxide = CO2
Methane = CH4

Note on Calculations
Each component in a formula is a Molecule
(of gas)
A Molecule of any gas occupies the same
Volume
The number of Molecules is therefore the
same as the number of Volumes
All calculations are therefore Volumetric,
including measured Gas Analyses
e.g. 2 CO = 2 volumes of CO

Examples Of Combustion For


Typical Fuel Components
with Oxygen
C + O2 CO2
2H2 + O2 2H2O
S + O2 SO2

Heat
Where does the heat come from?
Heat
+
C + O2

CO2

But we dont have Pure


Oxygen available
Oxygen in Air
(by volume)

Air 21% O2 + 79% N2


Ratio
1 O2 : 3.75 N2
The other main component in air is Water
Vapour. In humid conditions this can be 5% or
more and affects efficiency

Examples Of Combustion
For Basic Fuel Components
with Air
C + O2 + 3.75N2 CO2 + 3.75N2
2H2 + O2 + 3.75N2 2H2O + 3.75N2
S + O2 + 3.75N2 SO2 + 3.75N2

Example - Combustion Of
Methane

CH4 + 2O2 + 7.5N2


CO2 + 2H2O +
7.5N2

+ Heat

Stoichiometry
The technical term used to define the
theoretical amount of air or oxygen
required for complete combustion of
a fuel is the Stoichiometric ratio.
e.g. - for a typical Natural Gas the
Stoichiometric Ratio is approximately
10 volumes of Air to one of Gas.

Excess Air
Because of many factors, including

imperfect mixing, extra air is always


needed to ensure complete
combustion.
The extra air above the
Stoichiometric amount required is
known as the excess air.

Stoichiometric Air
Example

CH4 + 2O2 + 7.5N2


CO2 + 2H2O + 7.5N2 + Heat
Note no Excess Oxygen in Flue Gas

Excess Air Example


CH4 + (2 + 0.4)O2 + (7.5 +1.5)N2 CO2
+ 2H2O + 9N2 + 0.4O2 + Heat
0.4/2.0 = 0.2 or 20% excess air
0.4/(1+2+9+0.4)=0.032 or 3.2%O2 in
flue gases (wet)
0.4/(1+9+0.4)=0.038 or 3.8%O2 (dry)

Fuel Rich Examples


(Sub-stoichiometric)
3C + O2 2 CO + C + heat
4H2 + O2 2 H2O + 2H2 + heat
Products include Combustible Gases
and free Carbon (soot)

Some Dangers of operating


below Stoichiometric
Flue gases contain combustibles.
When these gases find a supply of air

they will burn.


If this happens in the convection tubes
it can damage the tubes.
Pockets of gas can build up in ducting
and cause explosions.
Flames eventually back out of burners.

Heater Control Problems with


Sub-Stoichiometric Combustion
Increasing fuel flow will reduce heat

to the process as more combustibles


are generated.
This can lead to total loss of control
and very high levels of unburned
gases in the heater.

How do you get out of this


situation?
Do not open up air suddenly, as this
will cause unburned gas to burn
rapidly and possibly explosively.
Reduce the gas flow slowly until
temperature starts to recover. This
allows unburned gases to disperse
safely.

Flue Gas Analysis


We control the excess air by measuring

the excess Oxygen in the Flue Gas


The amount of excess air we need to
know is what goes through the burners.
The ideal sample point is at the exit of
the firebox, as there should be little or
no air leaks in this box.

Sample Points

On-Line Analysis
The oxygen analyser is located in the
stack.
This analyser measures in the gas
stream, so it indicates what we call a
WET analysis since water vapour is
present.
Air leaks between the firebox and
stack affect the readings.

Portable (off-line) Analysis


Portable analysers can be used to check

gases wherever a test point is available.


They draw a sample through a cold line so
water condenses out. The analysis is
therefore known as DRY. This gives higher
O2 readings but standard compensations can
be made.
Analysers can also measure CO and NOx for
combustion efficiency and emissions checks.

Flue Gas Losses


The gases passing out of the stack

are above the ambient temperature,


so they carry unused heat into the
atmosphere.
Increasing Flue gas temperature
increases these losses.
Increasing Excess air increases the
amount of flue gases, giving even
more loss.

Units Of Heat Flow


BTU/hr
British Thermal Unit
Kilocalorie 1 KCal/hr=3.938 BTU/hr
1 KJ/hr = 0.9478 Btu/hr
KiloJoule
(1W = 1J/s)
Kilowatt 1 KW = 3,413 BTU/hr

Gross and Net Heating


Value
Higher (Gross) Heating Value (HHV):
The total heat theoretically available
from combustion of a fuel.
Lower (Net) Heating Value (LHV): the
HHV less the latent heat used to
convert the produced water to vapour.

Heating Values (Btu/Ft3)


LHV
HHV
-------------------------------------------------------Methane (CH4)
9111012
Ethane (C2H6)
16221773
Propane (C3H8)
Butane (C4H10)

23222524
30183271

Hydrogen (H2)
275325
Carbon Monoxide (CO)321
321

Wobbe Index
This is a factor used in the design of
Premix Burners only.
It is based on Calorific Value and
Density.
If 2 gases have the same Wobbe
index they should work equally well
in the same premix burner.

Products Of Combustion
Water Vapour - H2O
Carbon Dioxide - CO2
Sulphur Dioxide - SO2, SO3
Carbon Monoxide - CO
Unburned Hydrocarbons - UBC
Nitrogen Oxides - NO, NO2

Flame Speed
Another important factor in

Combustion is the Flame Speed


Each gas burns in air at a particular
speed under reference conditions
A stable flame is produced when the
Flame Speed and gas/air mixture
velocity correspond

Typical Flame Speeds


(ft/sec)
Methane

1.48

Ethane

2.30

Propane

2.78

Butane

2.85

Hydrogen

9.30

Carbon Monoxide

1.70

Other Gas Characteristics


All fuel gases will burn within a mixture

range both below Stoichiometric and


above Stoichiometric.
The flammability range varies between
gases, and is another indicator of how
easily a gas will burn.
Gas density affects burner design as
heavier gases have higher pressure drops
though gas jets.

So
why
have
burners?

Basic Objects of a Burner


The burner must mix the fuel and the
air effectively to ensure complete
combustion.
The flame must be stabilised in a
fixed position so that its heat can be
absorbed effectively.
The flame shape must be controlled
to suit its working environment.

Process Heater
Burners

Basic Burner Types


Natural Draught
Premix
Raw Gas (Nozzle Mix)
Combination Oil & Gas

Natural Draught
Air is pulled through the burner by draft
created by the heat in the furnace and
stack (explained in a later section).
Since air velocity is low we need to use
the energy in the gas (typically at 1
barg) to improve the gas/air mixing.
We have 2 basic ways we do this.

Premix Burners
Fuel pressure drop occurs in the gas jet.
Gas velocity in venturi induces part of
the air so air flow adjusts with gas flow.
Fuel and primary air mix before the
nozzle.
Secondary air mixes in burner throat.
All domestic gas burners are premix,
including cooking appliances.

Basic Burner Types


Pre-Mix Heater Burner
GAS NOZZLE

Pre-Mix Burner Advantages


Large fuel gas discharge orifice.
Large ports in firing nozzle.
Small flame volume.
Automatic variation of air flow with
varying fuel rates.

Premix Burner
Disadvantages
Can only accept small variations in

gas quality without adjustment (n.b.


unless Wobbe Index is maintained)
Limited turndown.
Difficult to adapt for combination
gas/oil firing (but not impossible)
Maintenance more difficult.
Hard to reduce NOx.

Raw Gas Burners


(Nozzle Mix)
Gas and air are kept separate until

discharged into the combustion zone.


Fuel pressure drop occurs at the
combustion zone.
The energy in the gas helps mix fuel
and air.

Basic Burner Types


Nozzle Mixing Gas Burner
BURNER
THROAT

GAS NOZZLE
FLAME
HOLDER

Basic Burner Types


Raw Gas

Zeeco Burner for United

Test Burner Flame

Nozzle Mixing Gas Burner


Advantages
A high turndown ratio
No possibility of flashback
The ability to burn a wide variety of fuels
with differing heating values
Flame shape can be controlled as required
by gas tip and tile design.
Can be adapted many ways to reduce NOx

Nozzle Mixing Gas Burner


Disadvantages
Small fuel discharge ports
"Large" flame volume
Fuel/air ratio is dependent on
operators

Raw Gas Combination


Designed to burn gas and fuel oil either

separately or together.
Inner tile stabilizes oil flame with controlled
primary air.
Gas burners stabilize in secondary tile throat.
Oil guns remove easily for cleaning while gas
burners are in service.
Gas burners can also be maintained while oil
burners are in service.

Combination Natural Draught


Gas and Oil Burner
PRIMARY
TILE

GAS TIPS

Combination Burner
Limitations
Oil guns need frequent maintenance.
Oil firing problems can cause fouling
of gas tips.
Total capacity of burner is set by air
flow available, so firing gas and oil at
the same time requires both fuels to
be limited to give correct total Heat
Flow.

Forced Draught Burners


Basically similar to Natural Draught Raw

Gas Burners (including Combination


Oil/Gas Burners).
Higher air velocities give better mixing
and smaller flames.
Air can be preheated, using various types
of heat exchanger.
Flames are hotter, giving higher rates of
heat transfer.

Gas pilots
Most process burners use a pilot to

provide the basic source of ignition.


Pilot is usually fully premixed.
Pilot can be ignited manually or have
a built-in spark ignition.
Some pilots have flame rods to check
flame is alight.

Pilot Burner

Burners are only part of


the system

Furnaces
A furnace is basically an insulated box lined
with tubes containing the process fluid.
We fire burners inside the box to heat the
tubes by a mixture of radiation and
convection heat transfer.
There are many different furnace designs
depending on the process application and
the companies involved.
The next 2 slides show some basic types.

Heater Types

Heater Types

Heater Parts

Burner Locations
Depending on the heater layout burners

may be installed up-fired, side-fired, endfired and down-fired.


Most heaters are up-fired, except for
special types such as Ethylene Crackers
and Reformers.

Heat Transfer
(a) - Radiation
In the firebox we get heat transferred

initially by direct radiation from the


flames to the tubes.
Additional heat is radiated to the back of
the tubes from the hot furnace walls.
Radiant efficiency depends on the
emissivity of the flame and of the tube
surfaces, plus the temperatures of both.

Heat Transfer
(b) - Convection
Hot gases passing over tube surfaces

heat the tubes mainly by Convection.


Away from the Flames most heat is
transferred by Convection.
A Convection Bank is a section of the
Heater where Radiation is insignificant,
normally just below the Stack.

Process Flow
In most heaters the coolest fluid is

exposed to the coolest heat source.


Fluid passes first through the
Convection Tubes, where available.
Fluid exits near the burners.

Furnace Draught
Natural Draught burners depend on the air
flow being created by the difference in air
pressure between the inside of the heater
and outside.
The reason the pressure is different is that
the air inside the heater is hotter than the
air outside.
Since hot air is lighter it rises and reduces
the pressure inside the heater.

Furnace Draught
Typically the temperature in a firebox

is 500 - 800C.
At this temperature the draft increases
by about 2.5 mm water for every 3
metres of firebox height.
If we have a convection section we
need more draught above it to
overcome the pressure drop through
the tube bank.

Where Draught comes from


10ft
column of
air at
1000degF
=
0.05w.g.

10ft
column of
cold air
=
0.15w.g.

DRAUGHT = 0.1 /2.5 m.m.

Furnace Draught
The temperature in the stack is

lower, so we need more stack height


to give us the required draught.
The next chart shows what happens
in our heater with a convection bank
and a stack damper

More on Draught
We need just enough air to burn our

fuel properly.
We do not want any air to get in
except through the burners.
Any air which does not pass through
the burners just absorbs some of the
heat available and throws it away up
the stack.

Even more on Draught


We need to keep draught negative all the

way through the heater.


If we get a positive draught then hot gases
will find small holes and make them bigger.
The critical point is usually at the top of the
firebox look at the chart again.
Many heaters have alarms for positive
pressure.

Smallest
Draught

Heater Tuning

Before Tuning
Before tuning make a full check of

the burner conditions.


Ensure air doors are open equally
and gas valves open completely.
Check flame appearance / stability.
Close all peep doors.
Keep in Radio touch with panel
operators.

Heater Tuning

Draught Calculation / Setting


For a typical heater as in the sketch we should

have about 2 mm draught at the arch.


If the heater is 10 metres high we can expect an
additional 8-9 mm at the floor
This gives us 12 mm total.
Burners should have been designed for slightly less
than this theoretical draught, so we close the air
doors to control the excess air through the burners.
After we close the air doors we may need to adjust
the stack damper to maintain 2 mm at the arch.
We check O2 and draught and repeat adjustments
until we get both figures correct.

HEATER ADJUSTMENT FLOW CHART


TARGET DRAFT
1 to 3 mm
water

TARGET
OXYGEN
23%

START
CHECK DRAFT

HIGH

LOW

CHECK O2

CHECK O2
TARGET

HIGH

LOW

HIGH

LOW

CLOSE STACK
DAMPER

OPEN AIR
REGISTERS

CLOSE AIR
REGISTERS

OPEN STACK
DAMPER

RETURN TO START

RETURN TO START
CHECK O2
HIGH
CLOSE AIR
REGISTERS

LOW
ON TARGET

RETURN TO START

OPEN AIR
REGISTERS
RETURN TO START

GOOD OPERATION

HEATER ADJUSTMENT FLOW CHART


TARGET DRAFT
1 to 3 mm
water

START

TARGET
OXYGEN
23%

CHECK DRAFT

TARGET

CHECK O2
HIGH
CLOSE AIR
REGISTERS

LOW
ON TARGET

RETURN TO START

OPEN AIR
REGISTERS
RETURN TO START

GOOD OPERATION

Heater Tuning

Draught Control General


There are differences in approach depending on

the type of burner, if the heater has a convection


bank, and if there is a stack damper.
If the burners are in a plenum and have their own
air doors then we have an extra adjustment point.
In such cases the individual burner air doors
should be fixed open unless a burner is stopped,
when they should be shut.
Sinclair has almost every combination possible,
so we have to look at all the possibilities.

Heater Tuning

Draught Control Raw Gas


Burners
Basically the Flowchart given applies to
this type of burner.
If there is no stack damper we need to
monitor the arch Oxygen assuming
that the furnace leaks have been fixed.
We must still check that Draught is
negative as putting too much air
through burners can cause draft to go
positive at the arch.

Heater Start-up
During start-up draught is low as

temperatures are low.


Pilots self-inspirate so should work normally.
High excess air is used to control furnace
temperature rise.
Individual Burner light-off should be done
with air doors nearly closed, so gas lights
more smoothly.
Increase air opening slowly so burner heats
up quickly and flame can stabilize properly.

Heater Tuning
Fuel Gas Valves

Valves fitted upstream of each burner are for isolation only.


The only time a valve should not be opened fully is during

light-off.
If any valves are not completely open then the burners are
not all firing at the same rate.
Gas pressure trip settings are established on the basis that
valves are fully open.
If a trip setting interferes during normal operation it should
be checked and may be changed, provided that the burner
stability is checked at the revised setting.
If an individual burner gives a problem with the valve open
then the problem should be investigated. On many burners
there are small gas jets which can plug easily and will affect
flame stability.

What can go Wrong?


1. O2 falls too low Temperature control is

2.

lost as fuel does not burn flames search


for air and blow back through registers
Puffing CUT BACK ON FUEL FIRST
Draught goes positive gas leaks out of
any gaps and causes damage, but O2 still
looks OK. Heaters should have an alarm
for high pressure.

Heater Tuning

Flue Gas Analysis


In general a good target for excess Oxygen is 3%
We need this level in the firebox that should

mean we are getting the right amount of air


through the burners.
Gas samples taken above convection banks
include any air which leaks in around the tubes.
These leaks should always be minimised as they
affect the convection bank efficiency.
In serious cases the leaks can exceed our 3%
target, so we could actually be firing below
stoichiometric.

Heater Tuning

Flue Gas Analysis


One way to check what is really happening

is to also measure CO levels.


Typically it is safe to run with a maximum of
50 ppm of CO in flue gases.
Older burners will start producing CO at
around 2% excess Oxygen, so we have a
good indication of the actual excess air
through the burners.
On-line CO analysers allow burners to be
run safely right down to their minimum
achievable levels of excess air.

Heater Tuning
Summary

We are aiming to have 3% excess oxygen in the

firebox.
We need all the burners in each heater to be
operating with the same amount of fuel and air.
This means air doors set equally, gas valves full
open, and clean gas tips.
If there is a stack damper, it should normally be
set to give a draft of 0.1 maximum at the heater
arch.
Some heaters may still need more draft to get
enough air through the burners.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)


Formation

What is the Problem?


All combustion processes produce

some Nitrogen Oxides


In the atmosphere these oxides can
form Nitric acid and fall as acid rain
They react with other gases and
sunlight, producing ozone and smog

NOx Formation in
Combustion
In ambient conditions
Nitrogen is an inert
gas

NOx Formation in
Combustion
In hot flames we get
Thermal NOx
Fuel NOx

Thermal NOx
Created from atmospheric Nitrogen
Formation controlled by the breaking of N2 molecules
to reactive nitrogen atoms by the supply of heat.
The N atoms then react with available Oxygen to form
NO.
Thermal NOx formation rate is dependent
on peak flame temperature and oxygen availability.

Controlling Reactions
Thermal NOx

NOx definitions
The primary component formed in a flame is NO.
In the atmosphere this NO converts to NO2, which

is the harmful form.


We define limits as NOx, where all measured
levels are treated as having converted to NO2.
Fired Heater limits are always expressed as the
equivalent levels of NOx at 3% excess Oxygen.
EPA bases limits on lbs/million Btu rather than on
percentages.

Fuel NOx
Some fuels contain fixed Nitrogen as

compounds. Liquids and Solids contain more of


these than most gases.
These compounds break down in the combustion
process and release the Nitrogen in a form which
reacts easily to form NOx.
Nitrogen as a gas component is not significant.
NOx levels increase in direct proportion to the
fixed Nitrogen in the fuel.
NOx reduction techniques are also effective in
reducing Fuel NOx.

How can we reduce NOx?


Reduce the Flame Temperature
Reduce the Oxygen available
Flue Gas Treatment

Reducing Flame
Temperature
Slow down fuel / air mixing
Inject cooler inert gases into the flame
(steam or recycled flue gas)
Increase the excess air
Reduce air below stoichiometric

Unfortunately all of these things conflict

with our requirement to get maximum heat


from the flames to the process

Reducing Available Oxygen


Reduce the excess air
Inject Inert gases into the flame to
reduce the oxygen concentration
available (recycled flue gas again)

Low NOx Burners


Staged Air
Staged Fuel Low NOx
Internal Flue Gas Recirculation
Combination of Features

Staged Air Burner Features

Sub-Stoichiometric Primary

Combustion
Presence of CO and H2
Flame Cooling in Second Stage
Works with Gas or Oil

Staged Air Burner

Staged Air Burners


Disadvantages

Long Flames
Complicated Air Adjustment
Fuel Composition affects
Performance
Higher Excess Air Required
Limited NOx Reduction

Staged Fuel Low NOx


Burners
Features / Advantages
Disadvantages

Staged Fuel Burner Features


1. Two Stage Fuel Injection
2. Good Heat Transfer from Secondary
3.
4.
5.

Flame
Combustion Product Injection
"Compact Flame
Tolerates gas variations

1. Two stage fuel injection


Primary gas burns with high excess
air, cooling the flame
Secondary gas mixes into flame
above the burner, where oxygen
level is low, so burns at a lower
temperature

2. Heat Transfer from Secondary Flame

Secondary Flame burns slowly above


the burner
Maintains uniform radiant Heat
transfer further up the furnace

3. Combustion Product
Injection
Secondary gas pokers are above the
burner tile
They induce furnace gases into the
Secondary flame
Oxygen is reduced but temperature
increases, maintaining flame
dimensions well

4. Compact Flame
High excess air primary flame gives
strong core to flame
Controlled secondary mixing and
recirculation keeps flame relatively
compact

5. Tolerates Gas variations


Balance of primary to secondary gas
is fixed (typically 30-40% primary)
Stoichiometry is not affected by fuel
properties

Staged Fuel Burner

Staged Fuel Burner


Disadvantages

Turndown is limited
Stability sometimes a problem
Small Gas Port Size
Effectiveness of NOx reduction
depends on fuel properties

Low Emission Burners


Combination of Staged Fuel
and Internal Flue Gas
Recirculation

Low Emission Burner

Based on Staged Fuel Burner


Primary Gas induces furnace gases

into Primary Flame


Zoning of air in burner throat

gives high stability


Self compensates for gas changes

Internal Flue Gas Recirculation

Recycle Gas

Flue Gas

Burner

Recycle Gas

Furnace

Flue Gas Recirculation


Hot flue gases rise fast up the centre of

the furnace
Cooler gases travel down wall around
tubes to the floor
Gases have only Excess Oxygen and
relatively low temperature
Lighter fuel gases run at higher pressure /
velocity, maintaining recirculation levels

Flame Retention
Primary gas induces inert gas into the

burner throat.
Flame holder mixes limited air with fuel
and recirculated gases to give a fuel-rich
zone around the outside of the flame
holder for high stability
Balance of air passes through centre of
flame holder to mix into the primary flame

Staged Fuel
Staged fuel induces more inert gases
into flame
Mixing is delayed by the fuel-rich
zone on the outside of the primary
flame

Internal Flue Gas Recirculation Burner

Relative Process Heater Burner NOx Levels for


Conventional and Low NOx Burners

Conventional - 0.12 # NOx/MMBtu, 100


ppmv

Staged Fuel - 0.06 # NOx/MMBtu, 50 ppmv


Low Emission - 0.03 # NOx/MMBtu, 25 ppmv

Boustead International Heaters.


END

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