DAB 30102

ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER 3
WATER TREATMENT

OBJECTIVE
In the end of this chapter the student should be able
to :
Identify the water supply sources
Explain the main principles of water supply and
water treatment processes

3.1 WATER QUALITY

As consumers, we expect our water to be both
esthetically pleasing and safe to drink.
Water that does not impart a taste or odor and is,
therefore, pleasant to drink, is called palatable.
Water that is free of chemicals, microorganisms,
and other contaminants, and is, therefore, safe to
drink, is called potable.
We expect our water to be both palatable and
potable.

 The following four categories are used to describe

drinking water quality:
1. Physical : Physical characteristics relate to the
quality of water for domestic use and are usually
associated with the appearance of water, its color
or turbidity, temperature, and in particular, taste
and odor.
2. Chemical : the chemical characterization of
drinking water includes the identification of its
components and their concentrations.

3. Microbiological : Microbiological agents are

important to public health and may also be
significant in modifying the physical and chemical
characteristics of water.
4. Radiological : Radiological factors must be
considered in areas where the water may have come
in contact with radioactive substances. The
radioactivity of the water is of public health concern.
Consequently, in the development of a water supply
system, it is necessary to examine carefully all the
factors that might adversely affect the intended use of
water supply source.

3.2 WATER RESOURCES

1.Surface water - water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland.
Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitationand
naturally lost through discharge to theoceans, evaporation,
evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge.
. Although the only natural input to any surface water system is
precipitation within its watershed, the total quantity of water in
that system at any given time is also dependent on many other
factors.
. These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and
artificial reservoirs, the permeability of the soilbeneath these
storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the
watershed, the timing of the precipitation and local evaporation
rates. All of these factors also affect the proportions of water
loss.

THE WATER CYCLE AND GROUNDWATER

 Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface

water from another watershed through a canal or pipeline. It can
also be artificially augmented from any of the other sources listed
here, however in practice the quantities are negligible. Humans can
also cause surface water to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable)
through pollution.

Distribution of Earths Water

2. Groundwater - Groundwater is fresh water located in the

subsurfaceporespace of soil androcks. It is also water that is flowing within
aquifersbelow thewater table. Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction
between groundwater that is closely associated with surface water and deep
groundwater in an aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water").
Groundwater can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs,
outputs and storage. The critical difference is that due to its slow rate of
turnover, groundwater storage is generally much larger (in volume)
compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy
for humans to use groundwater unsustainably for a long time without severe
consequences.
Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a
groundwater source is the upper bound for average consumption of water
from that source.

GROUNDWATER FLOW PROCESS

3.3 WATER TREATMENT

Water treatment describes those processes used to make water more acceptable for a
desired end-use. These can include use as drinking water, industrial processes,
medical and many other uses. The goal of all water treatment process is to remove
existing contaminants in the water, or reduce the concentration of such contaminants
so the water becomes fit for its desired end-use. One such use is returning water that
has been used back into the natural environment without adverse ecological impact.
The processes involved in treating water for drinking purpose may be solids
separation using physical such as settling and filtration, chemical such as disinfection
and coagulation.
Biological processes are also employed in the treatment of wastewater and these
processes may include, for example, aerated lagoons, activated sludge or slow sand
filters.

WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

Objectives for the Developments of a Water

Treatment System
Production of Safe
Drinking Water
Minimize the cost of
supply of safe drinking
water
Bring water to rural
communities

Factors considered at the treatment process

selection

Quality of raw water

Use for the processed water
Treatment and quality desired for the water
Size and capacity of the system
Cost of processes

Processes for Water Treatment

i)STORAGE
) Water is placed in a closed tank or reservoir called a clear well to allow time for the
chlorine to mix throughout the water in order to disinfect it. The water then flows into
the distribution system.
) Effects of storage:
) Physical: Gravity 90%suspended impurities settle down in one day

)Chemical: Organic matter

Oxidizing action
Nitrates, Free Ammonia
Aerobic bacteria, dissolved O2

)Biological: Only 10% bacteria remains at the end of 1 week

) Optimum period of storage: 2 weeks

ii) AERATION
Aeration is a unit process in which air and water are
brought into intimate contact. Turbulence increases the
aeration of flowing streams.
Aeration as a water treatment practice is used for the
following operations:

carbon dioxide reduction (decarbonation)

oxidation of iron and manganese found in many

well waters (oxidation tower)

ammonia and hydrogen sulfide reduction (stripping)

Aeration is also an effective method of bacteria control.

iii) SCREENING
Initially,wood chips,leaves, aquatic plants and
floatingimpuritiesareremoved by thescreening
process.
After thescreening,a more compact suspended
material will be removedto allowwaterto flow
through thechamberin which itwillsettle to the
bottom.

The purpose of screeningprocess

Restrict the entry ofsuspended solids such
asgarbageinthe water treatment plant.
Preventpump, pipeandequipmentfrom
cloggingor damage.
Launched awatercourseforthe next
process.

Types offilters
COARSEFILTER
To filtermaterialssuch as
thelargerfloatinggarbage andtwigs.
FINEFILTER
Toremovefloatingmaterialssuchsmallerwat
er plants, leavesand so forth.

iv) SEDIMENTATION
It is the process of removing solid particles heavier
than water by gravity force.
Sedimentation tanks are designed to reduce the
velocity of water so as to permit suspended solids
to settle out of the water by gravity without the
aid of chemicals.
Particles that will settle within a reasonable period
of time can be removed using a sedimentation
tank (also called clarifiers).

EXAMPLE 1
A research-scale water treatment plant uses low
turbidity raw water and is designing its overflow
weir at a loading rate of 175 m3/day.m. If its plant
flow rate is 0.044 m3/s, how many linear meters of
weir is required?
Solution:
(0.044 m3/s) x (86400s/day) = 21.7
or 22m
175 m3/day.m

EXAMPLE 2
Determine the surface area of a sedimentation
tank. The design flow is 0.044 m3/s. Use a design
overflow rate of 20m/day. Find the depth of the
sedimentation for the given overflow rate and
detention time.

 Solution:
1. Find the surface area.
First change the flow rate to compatible units.
(0.044 m3/s) (86400 s/day) =3801.6 m3/day
The surface area is = 3801.6 m3/day
20 m/day
= 190 m2
Common length to width ratios for sedimentation are
between 2:1 and 5:1, and lengths seldom exceed 100 m.
A minimum of two tanks is always provided.

Lets continue with our design, assuming that we

can use two tanks , each with a width of 12 m, a
total surface area of 190 m2 would imply a tank
length of
Length = 190 m2 / (2 tanks)(12 m wide) = 7.9 m or
8m
This does not meet our length-to-width ratio of 2:1
through 5:1.
The next step would be to choose a smaller width.
Lets try 6 m.
Length = 190 m2 / (2 tanks)(6m wide) = 15.8 m or
16 m

2. Find the tank depth.

First find the total tank volume by using a detention time of
120 min (assumed) based on the rule of thumb that the
detention time should be 2-4 hours. (minimum 2 hours)
V = (0.044 m3/s)(120 min)(60 s/min)
= 316.8 m3 or 320 m3
This would be divided into two tanks as noted earlier. The
depth is found as the total tank volume divided by the total
surface area.
Depth = 320 m3 = 1.68 m or 1.7 m
190 m3
The final design would then be two tanks, each having the
following dimensions : 6 m wide x 16 m long x 1.7 m
deep plus sludge storage depth.

v) COAGULATION & FLOCCULATION

Coagulation and flocculation: turbidity and suspended
solids (SS) removal
Design objective is removal of colloidal particles (1 nm
to 1 micron)
Can remove bacteria, soil, sand and clay particles
Stable particles in natural systems
Particles in natural waters (generally in pH range of 6
to 8)
Like charges repel each other and remain suspended in
solution (stable particles and no aggregation is possible)

 Coagulation mechanisms
Charge neutralization: Addition of Al or Fe salts and organic polymers
provides high concentrations of counter ions that neutralize negative
surface charges of particles
Reduces electrostatic repulsive interaction forces, and net
interaction energy becomes attractive (mainly Van der Waals
forces)
Net attractive forces lead to aggregation, and settling of
aggregates or floc formation
Sweep floc formation: precipitation of salts at high concentration
In settling, the precipitate sweeps colloidal particles along with
itself
Interparticle bridging: polymers attach to more than one particle
leading to aggregation and floc formation

Flocculation or mixing
Rapid mixing: for mixing the coagulant
Detention time is approx. 0.5 min
Slow mixing: for floc formation
Too fast will break floc; slow enough to maximize
number of particle collisions
Optimum speed has to be determined
experimentally

Chemical
coagulant :
Aluminium sulfate
(Alum)
Ferrous sulfate
(ferric)
Ferric chloride
Coagulant aid :
Polyelectrolytes
Lime alkalinity
addition
pH correction : lime,
sulphuric acid

vi) SOFTENING
Water softeners will remove nearly all the calcium and
magnesium from the raw water during the softening process.
Groundwater dissolves rocks and minerals releasing calcium
and magnesium ions that cause water to be hard. These
dissolved ions give hard water its characteristics.
Hardness to characterize a water that does not lather well,
causes a scum in the bath tub, and leaves hard, white, crusty
deposits on coffee pots, tea kettles and hot water heaters.
The failure to lather well and the formation of scum on bath
tubs is the result of the reactions of calcium and magnesium
with the soap.

 The ion exchange process is a common method for

water softening process and illustrated in figure
below.

The water softening and recharge

process

 Sodium ions are supplied from dissolved sodium

chloride salt, also called brine.
In the ion exchange process, sodium ions are used
to coat an exchange medium in the softener. The
exchange medium can be natural zeolites or
synthetic resin beads that resemble wet sand.
Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg 2+) ions that
cause water hardness can be removed fairly easily
by using an ion exchange procedure.
Water softeners are cation exchange devices.
Cations refer to positively charged ions.

 Cation exchange involves the replacement of the

hardness ions with a non-hardness ion. Water
softeners usually use sodium (Na+) as the
exchange.
As hard water passes through a softener, the
calcium and magnesium trade places with sodium
ions. Sodium ions are held loosely and are easily
replaced by calcium and magnesium ions.
During this process free sodium ions are released
to the water.

vii) FILTRATION
Filtration: removal of flocculated particles of smaller size
(those
that cannot be removed by settling)
Rapid sand filters: higher throughput
Slow sand filters: lower throughput
Adsorption is another important mechanism for particle
removal
Backwashing of filters is essential to regain head loss due
to
clogging
Generally with chlorinated water to disinfect filters

SLOW SAND FILTER

Slow sand filtersare
used in
water purificationfor
treatingraw waterto
produce apotable
product. They are
typically 1 to 2 metres
deep, can be rectangular
or cylindrical in cross
section and are used
primarily to treat surface
water. The length and
breadth of the tanks are
determined by the flow
rate desired by the
filters, which typically
have a loading rate of
0.1 to 0.2 metres per

RAPID SAND FILTER

Cleaning is achieved by agitating the bed either mechanically or

with compressed air and washing water upwards through the bed
to the surface, from where it is decanted as wastewater. This
backwash water is then wasted or return to the beginning plant

Enhance filtration rate

100 times greater
compared to slow sand
filter with the assistance
of it several features.
The most importance of
these features are :
1) A filter bed of a
granular that has
been processed to a
more uniform size
than typically found
in nature.
2) The use of
coagulation to
precondition the
water.
3) Mechanical and
hydraulic systems to

viii) DISINFECTION
Destruction of vegetative pathogens
Not sterilization which implies destruction of all life forms
(microbes, spores, cysts, viruses, etc.)
Autoclaving, membrane filtration
Physical methods
Membrane Filtration
Radiation: UV, X-rays, gamma rays
Chemical methods (disinfectants)
Chlorinated compounds
chlorine, chloramines, chlorine dioxide
Ozone (hydroxyl radical mechanism)
Potassium permanganate

Chlorine remains the most popular, why?

Potent germicide
- High oxidation potential
- Residual in distribution system
- Chloramine can do the same but is a less powerful oxidant
Taste and odor control
- Oxidation of NOM and removal of compounds causing taste and odor problems
Biological growth control
- Growth of algae and bacteria in storage reservoirs and water supply systems
Chemical control
- Iron and manganese removal
- Oxidation of SOCs

Problems with chlorine!

Hazardous material
- Difficulty in transportation, handling and storage
Pungent compound
- Disagreeable taste and odor
- Dermal and eye irritation
Microbial resistance to chlorine
- More effective against bacteria rather than spores, cysts and viral particles
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) formation
- Potential health hazard
Carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic
Non-carcinogenic effects little information or discussion in literature

3.4 WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The purpose of distribution system is to deliver
water to consumer with appropriate quality,
quantity and pressure.
Distribution system is used to describe collectively
the facilities used to supply water from its source
to the point of usage.

Requirements of Good Distribution

System...
Water quality should not get deteriorated in the
distribution pipes.
It should be capable of supplying water at all the
intended places with sufficient pressure head.
It should be capable of supplying the requisite
amount of water during fire fighting.

The layout should be such that no consumer

would be without water supply, during the repair
of any section of the system.
All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid
one metre away or above the sewer lines.
It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses
due to leakage to the minimum.

Layouts of Distribution Network

The distribution pipes are generally laid below the
road pavements, and as such their layouts
generally follow the layouts of roads.
There are, in general, four different types of pipe
networks; any one of which either singly or in
combinations, can be used for a particular place.

They are:
Dead End System
Radial System
Grid Iron System
Ring System

Methods of water distribution

For efficient distribution system adequate water
pressure required at various points.
Depending upon the level of source, topography of
the area and other local conditions the water may
be forced into distribution system by following
ways -

1. Gravity system
2. Pumping system
3. Combined gravity and pumping system

GRAVITY SYSTEM

Suitable when source of supply is

at sufficient height.
Most reliable and economical
distribution system.
The water head available at the
consumer is just minimum
required.
The remaining head is consumed
in the frictional and other losses.

PUMPING SYSTEM
Treated water is directly into the
distribution main out storing.
Also called pumping without storage
system.
High lifts pumps are required.
If power supply fails, complete
stoppage of water supply.
The method is not general used.

COMBINED GRAVITY and PUMPING SYSTEM

Most common system
Treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated
distribution reservoir.
Then supplies to consumer by action of gravity.
The excess water during low demand periods get stored in
reservoir and get supplied during high demand period.
Economical, efficient and reliable system.

COMBINED GRAVITY and PUMPING SYSTEM

Distribution Reservoirs...
Distribution reservoirs, also called service
reservoirs, are the storage reservoirs, which store
the treated water for supplying water during
emergencies (such as during fires, repairs, etc.)
and also to help in absorbing the hourly
fluctuations in the normal water demand.

Functions of Distribution Reservoirs

to absorb the hourly variations in demand.
to maintain constant pressure in the distribution mains.
water stored can be supplied during emergencies.
Location and Height of Distribution Reservoirs
should be located as close as possible to the centre of
demand.
water level in the reservoir must be at a sufficient elevation to
permit gravity flow at an adequate pressure.

Types of Reservoirs...
Depending upon their elevation with respect to
ground it may be classified into
1. Surface reservoirs
2. Elevated reservoirs

Surface reservoirs

These also called ground reservoir.

Mostly circular or rectangular tank.
Under ground reservoirs are preferred especially
when the size is large.
These reservoirs are constructed on high natural
grounds and are usually made of stones, bricks,
plain or reinforced cement concrete.

The side walls are designed to take up the

pressure of the water, when the reservoir is full
and the earth pressure when it is empty.
The position of ground water table is also
considered while designing these reservoirs.
The floors of these reservoirs may constructed
with R.C.C slab or square stone blocks resting on
columns.

To obtain water tightness bitumen compounds are

used at all construction joints.
At the top of roof about 60cm thick earth layer is
deposited and maintained green lawns to protect
the reservoir from cold and heat.
For aeration of water and inspection, ventilation
pipes and stairs are provided.

Under Ground Reservoir

TYPES OF TANKS
R.C.C TANKS: R.C.C (Reinforced Concrete ) tanks
are very popular because
1) They have long life
2) Very little maintenance
3) decent appearance

G.I. TANKS: G.I. tanks are generally in rectangular or

square in shape. Now a days G.I. tanks are not
preferring because
1) Life of the tank is short
2) Corrosion of metal
3) maintenance cost may be more

HDPE (high density polyethylene) TANKS: Now a

days HDPE tanks are very popular for storing less
quantity of water and hence useful for residential
purpose. The following are the advantages of
HDPE tanks
1) Handling is easy because of light weight
2) Cheap in cost
3) Maintenance cost is low
4) Cleaning of tanks are easy

Elevated Storage Reservoirs

Elevated Storage Reservoirs (ESRs)
also referred to as Overhead Tanks
are required at distribution areas
which are not governed and
controlled by the gravity system of
distribution.
These are rectangular, circular or
elliptical in shape.
If the topography of the town not
suitable for under gravity, the
elevated tank or reservoir are used.

They are constructed where combine gravity and

pumping system of water distribution is adopted.
These tanks may be steel or RCC.
Now RCC is commonly preferred.

The accessories of ESR areInlet and outlet pipe, overflow pipe discharging
into a drain
Float gauge, indicating depth of water.
Automatic device to stop pumping when the tank
is full.
A manhole and ladder.
Ventilator for circulation of fresh air.

Storage Capacity of Distribution

Reservoirs...
The total storage capacity of a distribution
reservoir is the summation of:
Balancing Storage:The quantity of water
required to be stored in the reservoir for
equalising or balancing fluctuating demand
against constant supply is known as the balancing
storage (or equalising or operating storage).

Breakdown Storage:The breakdown storage or

often called emergency storage is the storage
preserved in order to tide over the emergencies
posed by the failure of pumps, electricity, or any
other mechanism driving the pumps.
A value of about 25% of the total storage capacity
of reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the average
hourly supply, may be considered as enough
provision for accounting this storage.

Fire Storage:The third component of the total

reservoir storage is the fire storage.
This provision takes care of the requirements of
water for extinguishing fires.
A provision of 1 to 4 per person per day is
sufficient to meet the requirement.

EXAMPLE 1
When designing a booster pump to fill the an
elevated tank. If the tank overflow is at 118ft, what
will be the pressure at the ground level in PSI?
Solution:

Elevated
tank

Conversion :
1 PSI (pound per square inch) =
2.31 ft

118 ft

2.31 ft = 1 PSI
118 ft = 118 ft/2.31 ft x 1 PSI
= 51.1 PSI
Booster

EXAMPLE 2
A new house is being built at an elevation of 561 ft. With existing
boosters, you may pump up to an elevation of 497 ft. if you are
required to provide a minimum pressure of 30 PSI to the house, at
what water elevation will the houseSolution:
have the required pressure.
Elevation that will provide 30
PSI to the house

House elevation : 561 ft

Maximum pumping
elevation : 497 ft

Booster
station

Conversion :
1 PSI (pound per square inch) =
2.31 ft
2.31 ft = 1 PSI
30 PSI = 30 PSI x 2.31 ft/1 PSI
= 69.3 PSI
The total elevation head
(turus aras langit) for
supplying water to the house