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Static Electricity and Charge

Accumulation

Static electricity & charge accumulation


Definitions
Types of discharges
Mechanisms of charge accumulation
fluid systems - Streaming current
Solids handling

Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies

Definitions - Types of materials


Conductive
A material incapable of retaining a significant electrostatic
charge when in contact with earth and having a volume
resistively equal or lower than 104m

Dissipative
A material incapable or retaining a significant amount of
electrostatic charge when in contact with earth and having a
volume resistivity higher than 104m but equal to or lower
than 109m measured at ambient temperature and 50%
relative humidity.

Non-conductive
A material having a volume resistivity higher than 109m

Spark discharges
Discharging of static electricity between two conductors.

Spark Discharge
Generation of Spark Discharges.
Charge accumulation at a
conductive object.
Field strength exceeds the electric
strength of the ambient
atmosphere.

Ignitability--gases, vapors, dusts


Energy transfer--up to 10,000 mJ

Brush discharge

Brush Discharge
Generation of Brush Discharges
Conductive electrode moves towards
a charged nonconductive object.

Nonconductive lining or surface


must have a breakdown voltage
greater than 4 kV and a thickness
greater than 2 mm.
Nonconductive coating can be a
layer of the powdered solid.
Ignitability--gases, vapors
Energy transfer--up to 4 mJ

Propagating Brush Discharge

Propagating Brush Discharge


Generation of Propagating Brush
Discharge
Bipolar charging of the high resistivity material
(non conducting) that is lining another
conductor.
Field strength exceeds the electric strength of
the high resistivity material. Non conducting
lining must have breakdown voltage greater
than 4 kV

Ignitability--gases, vapors, dusts


Energy transfer--up to 100,000 mJ
Major contributor to static electricity
ignitions.

Cone Discharge

Cone Discharge
Generation of Cone Discharge.
Vessels larger than 1 m3.
Relatively fast filling rate, greater than
0.5 kg/s.
High resistivity (>1010m) bulk product,
larger than 1 mm diameter.
Charge accumulation in the bulk
product.
Field strength exceeds the electric
strength of the ambient atmosphere.

Ignitability--gases, vapors, dusts


Energy transfer--up to 1000 mJ

Ignitability of discharges
Type of Discharge

Energy transfer Ignitability

Spark

< 10,000 mJ

gases, vapor, dusts

Brush

<

gases, vapor

Propagating Brush

4 mJ

< 100,000 mJ

gas, vapor, dusts

Cone

<

1,000 mJ

gas, vapor, dusts

Corona

<

0.1 mJ

some gases with


low MIE

Static electricity & charge accumulation


Definitions
Types of discharges
Mechanisms of charge accumulation
fluid systems - Streaming current
Solids handling

Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies

Charge Accumulation
Whenever two dissimilar materials come in contact,
electrons move from one surface to the other. As these
materials are separated and more electrons remain on
one surface than the other,one material takes on a
positive charge and the other a negative charge.
Mechanisms for Charge Accumulation:

Contact and Frictional


Double layer
Induction
Transport

Contact and Frictional Charging


Dust transport
e.g. pneumatic transport of powders/solids

Pouring powders
e.g. pouring solids down chutes or troughs

Gears and belts


e.g. transporting charges from one surface to
another

Double layer charging


Caused by friction and movement at interfaces
on a microscopic scale.

Liquid-liquid
Solid-liquid
Solid-solid
Gas-liquid
Gas-solid

Induction charging
When an isolated conductor is subject to a
electric field a charge polarity develops on the
object. If the object is grounded then the charges
closest to the grounding source flows away
leaving the body with a net charge of opposite
sign.

Charging by Transport
Results from a charged dust, liquid or solid
particles settling onto a surface and transporting
their charges to this new surface.
The rate of charge accumulation is a function of
the rate of transportation.

Fluid handling operations


Many fluid handling
operations can generate
static electricity. This
becomes a problem
when non conducting
pipes (glass or Teflon
lined) are used without
adequate bonding.

Fluid flow into vessels


When fluid flows into a
vessel it carries a charge
with it which can build up in
the tank if the tank is not
properly grounded.
Routine inspection of
grounding minimizes the
change for fire or explosion
due to a spark discharge
from the charged tank.

Splash Filling
When non conducting
fluids (or solids) free fall
through air they pick up a
significant static charge.
When there is spraying
or splashing static
electricity can build up.
This can be a source of
sparks

Spraying of Liquids
When fluids are spayed
in air a static charge can
built up fairly rapidly in
some fluids. Nonconducting fluids typically
build up static charge
more rapidly.

Static electricity & charge accumulation


Definitions
Types of discharges
Mechanisms of charge accumulation
fluid systems - Streaming current
Solids handling

Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies

Streaming current
When a liquid or solid is
flowing, there is a
transfer of electrons from
one surface to another
as they flow past each
other.

Streaming current
For fluids the streaming current, Is, is calculated
using Eq. 7-12 for laminar flows.

4.24 10 amp
Is
f Re u r

ft volt

where
f is Fanning friction factor Eq. 4-24 to 4-29
du
Re
Reynolds number

r is dielectric constant Table 2.1


12

is zeta potential values of 0.01 to 0.1 (worst case)

Streaming current
For turbulent flow, use Eq. 7-14.

r
5.89 10 amp d u
Is

ft volt

where
14

is the double layer thickness


Dm
Dm is the molecular diffusivity

r 0
is the relaxation time
c
c is the specific conductivity mho/cm (Table 7-1)

Electrostatic Voltage Drops


For flow through a non conducting pipe (glass,
Teflon lined) a voltage drop can develop from
flowing liquid.
V Is R

Where R is calculated from the conductivity of the fluid


L
R
CA
Where:
L is the length of non conducting pipe

C is the specific conductivity of the fluid (Table7-1)


A is the cross sectional flow area

Charge Accumulation from Is


Charges can accumulate as a result of
streaming current:
dQ
Is
dt
Assuming constant streaming current
Q I st

Static electricity & charge accumulation


Definitions
Types of discharges
Mechanisms of charge accumulation
fluid systems - Streaming current
Solids handling

Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies

Accumulated charge from solid handling


Solid geometries are almost always ill defined, so need
to be based on empirical calculations. Solid
processing operations have different empirically
determined charge capacities.
Q=Charge Capacity X Charge Rate X time

coulombs kg
Q
s

kg s

Charge capacities solids handling


Table 7-5
Process
Charge Capacity (coulombs/kg)
Sieving
10-9 to 10-11
Pouring
10-7 to 10-9
Grinding 10-6 to 10-7
Sliding down incline
10-5 to 10-7
Pneumatic transport
10-5 to 10-7

Capacitance
Capacitance
C=

Q
V

For a Sphere

For Plates

C 4 r 0 r

C r 0 A

where
C is the capacitance, farads or coulomb / volt
r is the relative dielectric constant which is a property of the liquid or gas (Table 7-1)

0 is the permittivity constant=2.2 10-12


r is the radius of the sphere in m
A is the plate surface area in m 2
L is the thickness of the plate in m
Q is charge in coulomb
V is voltage in volt

coul
coul
s
8.85 1012
8.85 1014
volt ft
volt m
cm

Capacitance of Various Objects


Table 7-6
Object
Capacitance (farad)
Small scoop
5 x 10-12
Bucket
10 x 10-12
Barrel 100 x 10-12
Person
200 x 10-12
Automobile 500 x 10-12
Tank Truck 1000 x 10-12

Static Energy Stored


2

Q
E
2C
CV 2
E
2
QV
E
2

coulomb

units
(coulomb volt ) Joule
coulomb
volt
2

units coulomb
volt
volt

(coulomb volt ) Joule

units coulomb volt (coulomb volt ) Joule

Calculations
Determine the capacitance, C, of the object or
container contents, expressed in farads or
coulombs per volt.
Determine the accumulated charge, Q,
expressed in coulombs
Compute accumulated energy, E, expressed in J
or mJ.
Compare to the MIE of the dust or vapor.

Example Solids handling


Determine the potential hazard of pneumatically
transporting a dry powder (dry powder with a particle
size greater than 1 mm) at a rate of 30,000 kg/hr into
a metal vessel which has a volume of 70 m 3.
Given: The powder has a bulk density of 600 kg/m 3;
the vessel has a spherical geometry; 70 m 3 of
powder is charged into the vessel. The powder is
flammable with a MIE of 20 mJ.

Example solids handling - solution


Determine radius of sphere:
3V
r

3 70m

2.5m

Calculate capacitance:
C 4 r 0 r

r = 1 for air (Table 7-1) Spark jumps across air gap

C 4 (1) 8.85 1012 coul

volt m

10 coul
2.5
m

2.83

10

volt

Example - solids handling - solution (cont.)


Determine mass fed:
kg
Feed 70m 600 3 42,000kg
m
3

Calculate charge accumulated (Table 7-5)

Q 105 coul

kg

42,000kg 0.42coul

Example - solids handling - solution (cont.)


Calculate energy:
0.42coul

Q
E

2C 2 2.83 1010 coul


2

volt

3.1 108 J

This is much greater than the MIE of the powder. If there is


sufficient air this would be very hazardous.
This is the total charge that could go into vessel while filling.
Multiple discharges would occur, certainly there would be
conical pile discharges (unless grounded).

Example Fluid Handling


Determine the voltage developed between a
charging nozzle and a grounded tank and the
charge accumulated during the filling process at
150 gpm.

Example Fluid Handling (cont.)


Additional information:

Non conducting hose length


Hose diameter
Liquid conductivity
Liquid diffusivity
Dielectric constant
Density
Viscosity
MIE

20 ft
2 in.
10-8 mho/cm
2.2x10-5 cm2sec-1
25.7
0.88 g/cm3
0.60 centipoise
0.10 mJ

Example fluid handling - solution


Procedure
Calculate voltage drop using V=IsR (Eq. 7-17)
Calculate R using Eq. 7-18
Calculate Is using Eq. 7-12 or 7-14
Calculate Q using Q=Ist
Calculate E=(QV/2)
Compare to MIE

Example fluid handling solution (cont.)


Calculate the Resistance
2.54cm 610cm

ft
in.
1in. 3.54cm 20.3cm
in.

L (20 ft ) 12in.
A r

L
R

C A 108

610cm
cm

20.3cm
2

3.00 109

Example fluid handling solution (cont.)


Determine type of flow (laminar or turbulent)
150 gallon

min
2

1in.

2in
du
Re

2 1min
ft 3 144in
ft

15.3

2
s
7.48
gal
ft
60
s

15.3 ft

0.88 g

s
0.60cp

Hence Turbulent

cm 3

7750cp

348,000
ft
g
in s
cm 3

Example fluid handling solution (cont.)


Calculate the streaming current:

r 0

25.7 8.85 1014 s cm

Dm =

108 mho

2
cm
2.2 10
-5

22.7 105 s (Eq. 7-16)

cm

22.7 10 s
s
5

5.89 10 amp d u
r

(Eq.7-14)
ft volt

2in 153 ft 25.7 0.1volt


14
5.89 10 amp
s
7

1.66

10
amp
-5

ft volt
2.78 10 in

14

Is

Is

= 7.07 10-5 cm = 2.78 10-5 in. (Eq. 7-15)

Example fluid handling solution (cont.)


Calculate the voltage drop, accumulated charge and energy:
V I s R (1.66 107 amp ) 3.00 109 498volts (Eq. 7-17)
Determine fill time
t

300 gal 60 s min


150 gal

120 s

min
Determine accumulated charge
Q I s t 1.66 105 amp 120s 1.99 10 5 coulomb
Determine Energy
5
QV 1.99 10 coulomb 498volt
E

4.9mJ
2
2
This is greater than the MIE, so there is a fire or explosion hazard

Static electricity & charge accumulation


Definitions
Types of discharges
Mechanisms of charge accumulation
fluid systems - Streaming current
Solids handling

Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies

Balance of Charges
When you have a vessel
that has multiple inputs and
outputs, you can determine
the charge accumulation by
a charge balance.
Consider streaming
currents in, charges carried
away by flows going out,
and charge loss due to
relaxation.

Charge Balance
m
dQ n
Q
I s i ,in I s j ,out
dt i 1

j 1

where
n

I
i 1

s i ,in

I
j 1

j , out

is the current coming into the vessel


is the current flowing out of the vessel

Q
is the charge loss due to relaxation

is the relaxation time

Charge Balance
The charge flowing out of the vessel depends
on the charge already in the tank
Fj
I s j ,out Q
VC
where
Fj is the rate of discharge through outlet j
VC is the container or tank volume
Q is the total charge in the tank

Charge Balance
Hence the charge balance becomes
m F
dQ n
Q
j
I s i ,in Q
dt

i 1
j 1 VC

If flows, Fj , streaming currents, I s i ,in , and relaxation times, ,


are constant, then this is a linear differential equation that has
the solution:
Q A Be Ct
where
n

I
i 1

s i ,in

Fj
1

j 1 VC
m

s i ,in

B Q0
1 m F j

j 1 V C
i 1

1 m Fj
C
j 1 VC

Charge Balance
This relationship is used to determine the charge
developing in the tank as a function of time
relative to an initial charge of Q0.
The capacitance of the vessel is calculated as
before (typically assume equivalent spherical
vessel).
The static energy stored in the vessel is then
calculated from E=Q2/2C.
Examples 7-9 and 7-10 demonstrate using this
relationship.

Static electricity & charge accumulation


Definitions
Types of discharges
Mechanisms of charge accumulation
fluid systems - Streaming current
Solids handling

Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies

Bonding and Grounding


Charge buildup is always possible when you
have moving fluids or solids. The potential for
discharge is always present.
We can eliminate sparks if we ensure that all
parts of the system are connected with a
conductor

Bounding and Grounding


Historically there was little problem when piping
was all copper, stainless steel or iron. The
problem comes when pipes or vessels are glass
or Teflon lined or made from polymers or
connected with non-conducting gaskets.
There has always been a problem when you are
pouring either liquid or a solid through an open
space i.e., a filling operation.

Bonding and Grounding


Bonding
Is the connection of a
conducting wire between
two or more objects.
The voltage difference
between the two objects
is reduced to zero,
however they may have a
voltage difference relative
to ground or another non
connected object

Grounding
Is the connection of a
conducting wire between
a charged object and the
ground.
Any charge accumulated
in the system is drained
off to ground.

Bounding and Grounding


Figure 7-7 and 7-8 should say non conductive hose.

Bounding and Grounding

Bounding and Grounding

Bounding and Grounding

Bonding and Grounding

Grounding Glass-lined Vessels


Glass and plastic
lined vessels are
grounded using
tantalum inserts or a
metal probe.
This is less effective if
fluid has low
conductivity.

Dip Legs to Reduce Splash Filling


To eliminate the static
charge that builds up
from a fluid free falling
through air, a dip leg is
used. Note hole to
prevent back siphoning.
An angle iron can also
be used so fluid runs
down the angle iron
instead of free falling.

Static electricity & charge accumulation


Definitions
Types of discharges
Mechanisms of charge accumulation
fluid systems - Streaming current
Solids handling

Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies

Case Studies from


a production plant
Following are a series of
case studies of accidents
that actually happen at
BASF and Dow and
shared with the SACHE
Chemical Process Safety
Workshop participants.

Situation

Solids Filling Operation

A non-conductive bulk product is fed


out of 25 kg PE-bags in a vessel, in
which a flammable liquid is being
stirred. During shaking of the the just
empty bag an ignition occurred.

Cause
All handling of non-conductive solids
or bulk products may generate static
electricity. Due to contact charging of
the sliding bulk product, both the bulk
product and non conducting package
materials became charged. Brush
discharges form the surface of the bad
ignited the vapor/air mixture.

Precaution
Either fill into a closed, inerted vessel
or avoid charge generation.

Operator
Situation
An operator filled a non-conductive bulk
product out of 25 kg PE-bags in a
solvent free mixer. Exhaust system
operated. All equipment grounded, the
floor was dissipative, the operator wore
dissipative footwear. During pouring the
product in the reaction vessel explode.

Cause
The plastic wrap that held the sacks on
the pallet was on the floor and the
operator was standing on it. This
allowed a static charge to build up in
him.

Precaution
Always guarantee ground connection.

Situation
A ball-valve is installed in a waste gas
collecting system. During usual
production an explosion occurred; the
pipe system was destroyed.

Cause
A valve consists of conductive and
non-conductive parts. Conveying of
dust suspensions or droplets may
generate charge accumulation on the
ball and/or shaft if not bonded to the
grounded housing. Spark discharge
from charged ball to housing caused
explosion.

Precaution
Guarantee ground connection of
conductive equipment.

Valve

Lined metal drum filling


Situation
A pure liquid was filled in a steel drum with
an inner plastic liner. To avoid splash filling a
short funnel was inserted in the spout. The
nozzle, the drum and the weighing machine
were all grounded. Despite having an
exhaust system there was an explosion
during drum filling.

Cause
Electrostatic charge generation at the
surface of the non-conductive coating cannot
be transferred. The funnel had sufficient
capacitance was insulated from the ground
by the PE lined filler cap. Spark discharge
from funnel caused explosion.

Precautions
Guarantee ground connection of all
conductive equipment.

Situation

PE-drum filling

A mixture of water and hydrocarbon was


separated; the water phase was released from
time to time into a PE-drum located below the
separator. During such a release a fire occurred
on top of the PE-drum.

Cause
Splash filling the PE-drum generated charge
accumulation at the wall material. The unintended
release of a small amount quantity of hydrocarbon
generated a flammable atmosphere in the drum
and an ignition by brush discharges occurred.

Precaution
Install a level indicator so that an unintended
release of hydrocarbons does not occur.

Situation

Liquid Agitation

After intense mixing, a non-conductive flammable


dispersion was poured from the mixing vessel into a
PE-drum just positioned below. The exhaust system
was in operation, and to avoid charge accumulation
a grounded rod was inserted. During drum filling a
fire occurred.

Cause
Intense stirring of non-conductive liquids or
multiphase liquids leads to charge accumulation.
Splash filling in the non-conductive drum led to high
charge accumulation on the inner walls of the drum
and brush discharges from wall to grounded rod.

Precaution
Need to have another exhaust system and filling
method since an explosive atmosphere and static
electricity are formed at the same time in the same
location.

Situation

Super sack filling operation

A reactor vessel was purged with N2 and feeding


toluene was started. During the feeding operation a
resin was prepared for pouring from an antistatically
treated super sack via the filling port. The exhaust
system was operating. Just at the beginning of
pouring the bulk product into the vessel, an explosion
occurred.

Cause
Charge build up was generated both by splash filling
the liquid and pouring the bulk product. Flammable
atmosphere in the gas space of the vessel was
avoided by N2 purging, but the fast release of the bulk
product ejected toluene/dust/N2 mixture up into the
air where ignition occurred from either a spark
discharge from the charged-insufficiently treatedsuper sack or charged operator by brush discharge.

Precaution
Only packaging with sufficient antistatic treatment
should be used.

Filter
basket
A fine pigment was conveyed pneumatically

Situation

from a jet mill to a filter. The product settled in


the filterhousing was set on fire and
transported through the rotary valve in a silo.
All conductive parts were properly grounded.

Cause
The pneumatic conveying and the collection of
charged fine particles usually generates high
charge accumulation in filters. Extremely high
charging at the rubber coating of a metal
flange generated a propagating brush
discharge. Settling particles were ignited and
fell into the powder heap.

Precaution
In systems where high charging rates are
possible, the combination of conducting and
non-conducting materials must be avoided.
Replace rubber gasket with a conducting one.

Situation

Maintenance of a level indicator

A level indicator at a pressurized vessel was


blocked. Usual maintenance procedure is the fast
release of product in a pail until the connection
between indicator and vessel is cleared. During
such a procedure a fire occurred and two persons
were injured.

Cause
The release of a pressurized liquid generates highly
charged droplets thus generating both an explosive
atmosphere in the surrounding and brush discharges
between the opened valve and the surface of the
non-conducting pail used.

Precautions
For effective cleaning a fast release is required. To
avoid ignition the procedure needs to be changed to
discharge the pressure in a waste gas collecting
system.

Case Studies
Those who ignore history are doomed to repeat
it.
Those who ignore case studies are likely to
repeat the same operational behavior and are
doomed to experience the near miss, the
serious, or the fatal accident.

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