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Accumulation
Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies
Dissipative
A material incapable or retaining a significant amount of
electrostatic charge when in contact with earth and having a
volume resistivity higher than 104m but equal to or lower
than 109m measured at ambient temperature and 50%
relative humidity.
Non-conductive
A material having a volume resistivity higher than 109m
Spark discharges
Discharging of static electricity between two conductors.
Spark Discharge
Generation of Spark Discharges.
Charge accumulation at a
conductive object.
Field strength exceeds the electric
strength of the ambient
atmosphere.
Brush discharge
Brush Discharge
Generation of Brush Discharges
Conductive electrode moves towards
a charged nonconductive object.
Cone Discharge
Cone Discharge
Generation of Cone Discharge.
Vessels larger than 1 m3.
Relatively fast filling rate, greater than
0.5 kg/s.
High resistivity (>1010m) bulk product,
larger than 1 mm diameter.
Charge accumulation in the bulk
product.
Field strength exceeds the electric
strength of the ambient atmosphere.
Ignitability of discharges
Type of Discharge
Spark
< 10,000 mJ
Brush
<
gases, vapor
Propagating Brush
4 mJ
< 100,000 mJ
Cone
<
1,000 mJ
Corona
<
0.1 mJ
Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies
Charge Accumulation
Whenever two dissimilar materials come in contact,
electrons move from one surface to the other. As these
materials are separated and more electrons remain on
one surface than the other,one material takes on a
positive charge and the other a negative charge.
Mechanisms for Charge Accumulation:
Pouring powders
e.g. pouring solids down chutes or troughs
Liquid-liquid
Solid-liquid
Solid-solid
Gas-liquid
Gas-solid
Induction charging
When an isolated conductor is subject to a
electric field a charge polarity develops on the
object. If the object is grounded then the charges
closest to the grounding source flows away
leaving the body with a net charge of opposite
sign.
Charging by Transport
Results from a charged dust, liquid or solid
particles settling onto a surface and transporting
their charges to this new surface.
The rate of charge accumulation is a function of
the rate of transportation.
Splash Filling
When non conducting
fluids (or solids) free fall
through air they pick up a
significant static charge.
When there is spraying
or splashing static
electricity can build up.
This can be a source of
sparks
Spraying of Liquids
When fluids are spayed
in air a static charge can
built up fairly rapidly in
some fluids. Nonconducting fluids typically
build up static charge
more rapidly.
Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies
Streaming current
When a liquid or solid is
flowing, there is a
transfer of electrons from
one surface to another
as they flow past each
other.
Streaming current
For fluids the streaming current, Is, is calculated
using Eq. 7-12 for laminar flows.
4.24 10 amp
Is
f Re u r
ft volt
where
f is Fanning friction factor Eq. 4-24 to 4-29
du
Re
Reynolds number
Streaming current
For turbulent flow, use Eq. 7-14.
r
5.89 10 amp d u
Is
ft volt
where
14
r 0
is the relaxation time
c
c is the specific conductivity mho/cm (Table 7-1)
Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies
coulombs kg
Q
s
kg s
Capacitance
Capacitance
C=
Q
V
For a Sphere
For Plates
C 4 r 0 r
C r 0 A
where
C is the capacitance, farads or coulomb / volt
r is the relative dielectric constant which is a property of the liquid or gas (Table 7-1)
coul
coul
s
8.85 1012
8.85 1014
volt ft
volt m
cm
Q
E
2C
CV 2
E
2
QV
E
2
coulomb
units
(coulomb volt ) Joule
coulomb
volt
2
units coulomb
volt
volt
Calculations
Determine the capacitance, C, of the object or
container contents, expressed in farads or
coulombs per volt.
Determine the accumulated charge, Q,
expressed in coulombs
Compute accumulated energy, E, expressed in J
or mJ.
Compare to the MIE of the dust or vapor.
3 70m
2.5m
Calculate capacitance:
C 4 r 0 r
volt m
10 coul
2.5
m
2.83
10
volt
Q 105 coul
kg
42,000kg 0.42coul
Q
E
volt
3.1 108 J
20 ft
2 in.
10-8 mho/cm
2.2x10-5 cm2sec-1
25.7
0.88 g/cm3
0.60 centipoise
0.10 mJ
ft
in.
1in. 3.54cm 20.3cm
in.
L (20 ft ) 12in.
A r
L
R
C A 108
610cm
cm
20.3cm
2
3.00 109
min
2
1in.
2in
du
Re
2 1min
ft 3 144in
ft
15.3
2
s
7.48
gal
ft
60
s
15.3 ft
0.88 g
s
0.60cp
Hence Turbulent
cm 3
7750cp
348,000
ft
g
in s
cm 3
r 0
Dm =
108 mho
2
cm
2.2 10
-5
cm
22.7 10 s
s
5
5.89 10 amp d u
r
(Eq.7-14)
ft volt
1.66
10
amp
-5
ft volt
2.78 10 in
14
Is
Is
120 s
min
Determine accumulated charge
Q I s t 1.66 105 amp 120s 1.99 10 5 coulomb
Determine Energy
5
QV 1.99 10 coulomb 498volt
E
4.9mJ
2
2
This is greater than the MIE, so there is a fire or explosion hazard
Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies
Balance of Charges
When you have a vessel
that has multiple inputs and
outputs, you can determine
the charge accumulation by
a charge balance.
Consider streaming
currents in, charges carried
away by flows going out,
and charge loss due to
relaxation.
Charge Balance
m
dQ n
Q
I s i ,in I s j ,out
dt i 1
j 1
where
n
I
i 1
s i ,in
I
j 1
j , out
Q
is the charge loss due to relaxation
Charge Balance
The charge flowing out of the vessel depends
on the charge already in the tank
Fj
I s j ,out Q
VC
where
Fj is the rate of discharge through outlet j
VC is the container or tank volume
Q is the total charge in the tank
Charge Balance
Hence the charge balance becomes
m F
dQ n
Q
j
I s i ,in Q
dt
i 1
j 1 VC
I
i 1
s i ,in
Fj
1
j 1 VC
m
s i ,in
B Q0
1 m F j
j 1 V C
i 1
1 m Fj
C
j 1 VC
Charge Balance
This relationship is used to determine the charge
developing in the tank as a function of time
relative to an initial charge of Q0.
The capacitance of the vessel is calculated as
before (typically assume equivalent spherical
vessel).
The static energy stored in the vessel is then
calculated from E=Q2/2C.
Examples 7-9 and 7-10 demonstrate using this
relationship.
Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies
Grounding
Is the connection of a
conducting wire between
a charged object and the
ground.
Any charge accumulated
in the system is drained
off to ground.
Balance of charges
Bonding and grounding
Case studies
Situation
Cause
All handling of non-conductive solids
or bulk products may generate static
electricity. Due to contact charging of
the sliding bulk product, both the bulk
product and non conducting package
materials became charged. Brush
discharges form the surface of the bad
ignited the vapor/air mixture.
Precaution
Either fill into a closed, inerted vessel
or avoid charge generation.
Operator
Situation
An operator filled a non-conductive bulk
product out of 25 kg PE-bags in a
solvent free mixer. Exhaust system
operated. All equipment grounded, the
floor was dissipative, the operator wore
dissipative footwear. During pouring the
product in the reaction vessel explode.
Cause
The plastic wrap that held the sacks on
the pallet was on the floor and the
operator was standing on it. This
allowed a static charge to build up in
him.
Precaution
Always guarantee ground connection.
Situation
A ball-valve is installed in a waste gas
collecting system. During usual
production an explosion occurred; the
pipe system was destroyed.
Cause
A valve consists of conductive and
non-conductive parts. Conveying of
dust suspensions or droplets may
generate charge accumulation on the
ball and/or shaft if not bonded to the
grounded housing. Spark discharge
from charged ball to housing caused
explosion.
Precaution
Guarantee ground connection of
conductive equipment.
Valve
Cause
Electrostatic charge generation at the
surface of the non-conductive coating cannot
be transferred. The funnel had sufficient
capacitance was insulated from the ground
by the PE lined filler cap. Spark discharge
from funnel caused explosion.
Precautions
Guarantee ground connection of all
conductive equipment.
Situation
PE-drum filling
Cause
Splash filling the PE-drum generated charge
accumulation at the wall material. The unintended
release of a small amount quantity of hydrocarbon
generated a flammable atmosphere in the drum
and an ignition by brush discharges occurred.
Precaution
Install a level indicator so that an unintended
release of hydrocarbons does not occur.
Situation
Liquid Agitation
Cause
Intense stirring of non-conductive liquids or
multiphase liquids leads to charge accumulation.
Splash filling in the non-conductive drum led to high
charge accumulation on the inner walls of the drum
and brush discharges from wall to grounded rod.
Precaution
Need to have another exhaust system and filling
method since an explosive atmosphere and static
electricity are formed at the same time in the same
location.
Situation
Cause
Charge build up was generated both by splash filling
the liquid and pouring the bulk product. Flammable
atmosphere in the gas space of the vessel was
avoided by N2 purging, but the fast release of the bulk
product ejected toluene/dust/N2 mixture up into the
air where ignition occurred from either a spark
discharge from the charged-insufficiently treatedsuper sack or charged operator by brush discharge.
Precaution
Only packaging with sufficient antistatic treatment
should be used.
Filter
basket
A fine pigment was conveyed pneumatically
Situation
Cause
The pneumatic conveying and the collection of
charged fine particles usually generates high
charge accumulation in filters. Extremely high
charging at the rubber coating of a metal
flange generated a propagating brush
discharge. Settling particles were ignited and
fell into the powder heap.
Precaution
In systems where high charging rates are
possible, the combination of conducting and
non-conducting materials must be avoided.
Replace rubber gasket with a conducting one.
Situation
Cause
The release of a pressurized liquid generates highly
charged droplets thus generating both an explosive
atmosphere in the surrounding and brush discharges
between the opened valve and the surface of the
non-conducting pail used.
Precautions
For effective cleaning a fast release is required. To
avoid ignition the procedure needs to be changed to
discharge the pressure in a waste gas collecting
system.
Case Studies
Those who ignore history are doomed to repeat
it.
Those who ignore case studies are likely to
repeat the same operational behavior and are
doomed to experience the near miss, the
serious, or the fatal accident.