CHAPTER # 04

HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
(8 @ 80 = 10%)

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Topics as per Syllabus

4.1 Introduction and Importance of Highway Drainage
System
4.2 Causes of Moisture Variation in Subgrade Soil
4.3 Surface Drainage System
4.3.1 Different Types of Road Side Drain
4.3.2 Cross Drainage Structures (Culverts and Others)
4.3.3 Different Types of Energy Dissipating Structures
4.4 Sub-surface Drainage System
4.4.1 Drainage of Infiltered Water
4.4.2 Control of Seepage Flow
4.4.3 Lowering of Water Table
4.4.4 Control of Capillary Rise
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Few Shots from Our Urban Roads: Raining on

2071/01/21 Monday Afternoon at Kathmandu

WHAT IS THE MAIN PROBLEM?

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

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4.1 Introduction and Importance

of Highway Drainage System

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4.1.1 Introduction of Highway

Drainage System
WATER is the Main Cause of Deterioration of Highway.
Stability of Highways is Reduced by
Increase in Moisture Contents of the Soil.

the

So Highways Drainage is ESSENTIAL.

DRAINAGE is an INTEGRAL PART of the ECONOMIC
HIGHWAY DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION.

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Damage of Highway by Wat

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 Three of the Most Important

Aspects of Highway Design are DRAINAGE
DRAINAGE

and

DRAINAGE.

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What is Highway Drainage?

Process of Removing and Controlling the Excess
Surface and Sub-surface Water Within the Right-ofWay (ROW).
Includes Interception and Diversion of Water from
Over, Under and the Vicinity of the Road Surface.
The Right of Way (ROW) is the total land width
required for the Highway, to accommodate the
roadway (carriageway and shoulders), side drains,
service roads, tree plantation, utilities, etc.

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4.1.2 Importance of Highway

Drainage System

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1. Softening of Road Surface (of earthen,

gravel or WBM road) and Loosening their
Strength or Bearing Capacity.

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2. Softening of Subgrade Soil and Reducing

its Bearing Capacity.

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3. Flexible Pavements Fail by Formation of

Waves and Corrugation.

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4. Flexible Pavement Fail by Formation of

Ruts.

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5. Stripping of Bitumen from Aggregates

Loosening or Detachment of Some of the
Bituminous Layers and Formation of Pot
Holes.

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Potholes Formation

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6. Mud Pumping in Rigid Pavements

Movement of material underneath the slab or
ejection of material from underneath the slab as a
result of water pressure.
Water accumulated underneath a PCC slab will
pressurize when the slab deflects under load.

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7. Erosion of Soil from Top Surface of Roads

and Embankment Slopes Due to Surface
Water.

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8. Considerable Damage to Shoulder and Edge of Highways.

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9. Failure of Earth Slope or Formation Slope

and Embankment Foundation

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10. Erosion of Side Slopes, Road Side Drains,

and Formation of Gullies.

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11. Highway/Road Failure because of

Slips and
Landslides due to the Flowing of Rainwater or Surface
Water along the Roadside for Long Distances.

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12. Damage to Highway/Road due to Freezing

Action Due to the Presence of Water in
Subgrade at Places of Freezing Temperature
in Winter.

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13. Failure of Highway/Road Because of Variation

in the Volume of Subgrade Due to Variation in
M/C in Expansive Soils.

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4.2 Causes of Moisture Variation in Subgrade Soil

Water/Moisture enters to the subgrade from various
sources and it also losses from the subgrade.
Main Causes of Moisture Variation in Subgrade Soil
a) By Free Water
Water seeping towards the subgrade soil from the
adjacent higher ground.
Water infiltrated into the subgrade soil through
pavement during rainfall.
Water penetrates from the shoulders and the pavement
edges.
b) By Ground Water
Rise and fall of WT.
Capillary rise from the lower soil level/layer.
Movement of water vapour through soil.
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4.3 Surface Drainage System

Process of interception, removal and diversion of surface
water from highway and the adjoining land is known as
Surface Drainage System.
Removal of rain water from road surface and road side
ground is called Surface Drainage.
The surface water from road and adjacent areas shall be
intercepted and disposed through road side drains to the
nearest natural outfalls (nearest stream, valley or water
courses).
Provision must be made for removal of water, from rain
or melting snow, or both that falls directly on a road or
comes from the adjacent terrain.
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Classification of Drainage Works

Surface Drainage Surface Water is Intercepted
and Diverted to a Natural Channel or Depression.
Sub-surface or Sub-soil Drainage Seeping or
Sub-surface Water is Intercepted and Removed to a
Safe Place.
Cross Drainage Works Water of Natural Drainage
Under the Highway is Intercepted and Disposed Off.

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Categorization of Surface
Drainage

1. Drainage in Rural Highway

2. Drainage in Urban Streets
3. Drainage in Hill Roads

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Drainage in Rural Highway

Water has to be Drained Off Both from Pavement with
sufficient cambering and Shoulder.
So Shoulders are Constructed with Suitable Cross
Slopes so that the Water is Drained Off to the Side
Drains.
Usually Side Drains are Open Unlined of Trapezoidal
Shape Cut to Suitable Cross Section and Longitudinal
Slopes and are Provided Parallel to the Road Alignment.
In Embankment, the Longitudinal Drains are Provided
on One or Both Sides Beyond the Foot of Formation.
In Cuttings, Drains are Provided on Either Sides of the
Road Just Adjacent to the Shoulder Width.
In Places where Deep Open Drains are Undesirable Due
to Restriction of Space (in cutting) a Covered Drain
Properly Filled with Layers of Sand and Gravel may be
Used.
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Camber

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Transverse slope

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Longitudinal slope

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Longitudinal channel

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Drainage in Urban Streets

Underground Drains are More Preferred Because of
the Limitations of the Land and Presence of Foot
paths, Driving Islands and Road Side Developments.
Water Drained from the Pavement Surface can be
Carried Forward in the Longitudinal Direction
Between the Kerb and the Pavement for Short
Distances.
This Water May be Collected in the Catch Pits and
Lead through Underground Drainage Pipes.
Street inlets are used to drain-off the surface water.
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Roadside Drain
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Conventional Drainage System

In order to control stormwater runoff,
pipe system has been designed and
used for many years in cities.
Conventional system carries out runoff
from rainfall and waste water as fast as
possible through underground pipe
systems.
Out of Sight Out of Mind
approach.
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Green infrastructure
Green infrastructure refers to different natural
elements such as vegetations and soil that can be
applied in a range of ways to manage and control
stormwater runoff in a sustainable way as well as
providing the community aesthetic neighborhood.

1) Greet Streets
2) Permeable Pavement
3) Bioretention or Biofiltartion
4) Sustainable Stormwater Management
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Modern International Practices

1. Green Streets
A green street is designed to integrate a natural system
of stormwater management within a public right-of-way.
Green streets are generally planned to be visible
components of a system of green infrastructure
and are incorporated into the aesthetics of the
community.
Green streets are an innovative way to manage
stormwater on site and combat urban heat island effects.
Green streets designs will vary from community to
community or even street to street, but they all have the
same goalto reduce the amount of stormwater
that directly enters into streams and rivers
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Street side Swale, Seattle, USA

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2. Permeable/Pervious Pavements
a) Asphalt Permeable Pavement

b)

Concrete Permeable Pavement

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Asphalt Permeable Pavement

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Concrete Permeable Pavement

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Permeable Turf

ermeable Interlocking Paver

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Types of Permeable Pavers

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This bioretention area takes runoff from the street

through a trench drain in the sidewalk as well as
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Drainage in Hill Roads

Catch Drains are Provided Running Parallel to the
Roadway from which Water is Diverted by Sloping
Drains and Across the Road Pavement by Means of
Culverts.
Side Drains are Provided Only on the Hill Sides of the
Roads not on the Both Sides.
Due to Limitations in the Formation Width, the Side
Drains are Constructed to such a Slope that at
Emergency the Vehicles could Utilize this Space for
Crossing or Parking.
Usual Types of Side Drains are Angle, Saucer, Kerb
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and Channel Drains.

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Design of Surface Drainage

Into 2 Phases1. Hydrological Analysis

2. Hydraulic Analysis

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Hydrological Analysis
Main Objectives: To Estimate the Maximum
Quantity of Water Expected to Reach the Element
of Drainage System Under Consideration.
Various Factors Affecting the Run-off are
Rate of Rainfall,
Type of Soil and Moisture Condition,
Topography of the Area,
Type of Ground Cover Like Vegetation, etc.

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Rational Formula
Used to estimate the peak run-off water for highway
drainage:
Q = C i Ad
Where, Q = run-off,
C = run-off coefficient (ratio of run-off to rate of
rainfall)
i = rainfall intensity mm/s
Ad = drainage area in 1000
C depends mainly on the type of surface and its slope.
Ad consists of several types of surface run-off coefficients
C1, C2, C3, with their respective areas A 1, A2, A3, .
The weighted value of C =
Design value of i is to be determined for the expected
duration of storm and frequency of occurrence.
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 The inlet time for the storm water to flow from

the remotest point in the drainage area to the
drain inlet is estimated using chart.
The time for water to flow through the drain
between the inlet and outlet points is determined
based on the allowable velocity (general range
from 0.3 to 1.5 m/s depending on the type of soil)
of flow in the drain.
The frequency of occurrence of the storm or the
return period may be 5, 10, 25 or 50 years.
The drainage area from which the surface water
is expected to flow to a side drain is determined
with the help of contour map or by studying the
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Hydraulic Analysis
After determining the design run-off Q, the next step is the hydraulic
design of drains.

Side drains and partially filled culverts are designed based on the
principles of flow through open channels.
If Q is the quantity of surface water to be removed by side drain and
V is the allowable velocity of flow on the side drain, the area of cross
section A of the channel is found from the relation:
Q = AV
Assuming uniform and steady flow through channel of uniform crosssections and slope, Mannings Formula is used for calculating the
velocity of flow or the longitudinal slope.
V=
Where, V = average velocity, m/s
n = Mannings roughness coefficient
R = Hydraulic radius, m =
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S = longitudinal slope of channel

 The roughness coefficient values depend on the

type of soil in unlined channel.
Value of C
Gravel or WBM = 0.35 to 0.7
Impervious soil = 0.4 to 0.65
Soil covered with turf = 0.3 to 0.55
Pervious soil
= 0.05 to 0.3
Ordinary earth
= 0.02
Heavy vegetation = 0.05-0.10
Concrete = 0.013
Rough rubble masonry =
0.04

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Maximum values of runoff coefficient C for various soil

covers
Soil Cover

Steep, bare rock

0.9

Rocks steep, wooded

0.8

Plateau, lightly covered

0.7

Clayey soils, stiff and bare

0.6

Clayey soils, lightly covered

0.5

Loam, ligtly, cultivate or

covered

0.4

Loam, predominately
cultivated

0.3

Sandy soil, light growth

0.2

soil, covered,
heavy
0.1can calculate the flow
In case whenSandy
the data
are unavailable
we
bush
by various other
means such as
a) Information from the locals
b) Personally observation
c) Other points
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Table: Allowable velocities for different materials

Bed Material

Allowable
velocity
(m/s)

silt

0.3- 0.5

Loam

0.6- 0.9

Fine sandy or stiff clay

0.9- 1.5

Coarse gravel, rocky soil

1.2 -1.5

Soil covered with well established grass

1.5 - 1.8

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Data for Drainage Design

The following data are to be collected for the design
of road side drain:
1. Total road land and width of land from where water
is expected to flow on the stretch of the side drain.
2. Run-off coefficient of different types of surface in the
drainage area and their respective areas.
3. Distance from farthest point in the drainage area to
the inlet of the side drain along the steepest gradient
and the average value of the slope.
4. Type of soil of the side drain, roughness coefficient
allowable velocity of flow in the drain.
5. Rain fall data including average intensity and
frequency of recurrence of flood.
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Simplified Steps for the Design of

Longitudinal Drains of a Highway
Simplified steps for the design of longitudinal drains of a highway to
drain
off the surface water are given below:
1. The frequency of return period such as 10 years, 25 years etc. is
decided based on the finances available and desired margin of safety,
for the design of drainage system.
2. The values of coefficient of run-off, C from drainage area are found
and the weighted value is computed.
3. Inlet time T1 for the flow of storm water from the farthest point in
the drainage area to drain inlet along the steepest path of flow is
estimated from the distance, slope of the ground and type of cover.
4. Time of flow along the longitudinal drain T2 is determined for
the estimated length of longitudinal drain L upto the nearest cross
drainage, and for the allowable velocity of flow V in the drain i.e. T2 =.
5. The total time T for the inlet flow and along the drain is taken as
the time of concentration or the design value of rain fall
duration, T =T1 +T2.
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6. From the rain fall intensity-duration-frequency curves, the rain fall

intensity is found in mm/sec. corresponding to duration T and
frequency of return period.

7. The total area of drainage Ad is found in units of 1000 m2.

8. The run-off quantity Q is computed using Rational Formula Q = C
i Ad.
9. The cross sectional area of flow A of the drain is calculated A =
where V is the allowable speed of flow in the drain.
10. The required depth of flow in the drain is calculated for a
convenient bottom width and the side slope of the drain. The actual
depth of the open channel drain may be increased slightly to give a
free board. The hydraulic mean radius of flow R is determined.
11. The required longitudinal slope S of the drain is calculated using
mannings formula adopting suitable value of roughness coefficient n.
V = (Mannings Formula)
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Fig: Typical Rainfall intensity Duration Curve

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Numerical Examples
1. The distance between the turf covered drainage area
farthest point and point of entry to the side drain is 250
m. the average slope of the area is 2%. The average
value of run off coefficient is 0.25. The length of the
longitudinal drain on the sandy clay is 540 m (from the
inlet point to the cross drainage).. The allowable velocity
in the drain is assumed to be 0.6 m/sec ands 0.02
Mannings roughness coefficient . Design the crosssection and longitudinal slope of trapezoidal drain
assuming the bottom width of the trapezoidal section to
be 30 cm, free board to be 9 cm and cross slope to be
1:1 (1 vertical to 1 horizontal) for a 10 year return
period basis.
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Solution Hints
Inlet
Time () (for turf with 2% slope for 250 m

corresponding distance from the chart)

= 33 min
250 m

33

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 Time
taken () by the storm water to flow through

the drain upto the cross drainage @ 0.6 m/sec or,

0.6 x 60 m/min
=
= 15 min

Total Duration of Time or

Concentration
(T) = = 33 + 15 = 48 min

Time

of

Drainage Area
() = 540 x 250 = 1,35,000 or, 135 (1000 units)
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 From
the
Rainfall-Intensity-Duration
Curve,

Corresponding Rainfall Intensity (i) for a 10 year

period for 48 min
= 70 mm/hr or = mm/sec

70

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 C = 0.25 (Given)
Q = C = 0.25 x x 135 = 0.542 /sec
Cross-sectional Area of the Drain (A) = = = 0.903 --- (1)
Since, For the Trapezoidal Section of Drain,
Bottom Width of the Drain = 30 cm = 0.3 m
(0.3 + 2d)
Side Slopes = 1:1
0.3 m
d
d
Free Board = 9 cm = 0.09 m
Let, the Depth of Flow = d m,
d
1
1
d
then the Top Width = (0.3 + 2d) and the
1
1
0.3 m
Cross-sectional Area of the Drain = {0.3 + (0.3 + 2d)}
x
= (0.6 + 2d) x = (0.3d + ) --- (2)
Therefore, from (1) and (2),
(0.3d + ) = 0.90 or, + 0.3d - 0.903 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for d,
d = 0.81 m
This is the Actual Depth of Flow for the Design Quantity of
Water through the Trapezoidal Section. Therefore, allowing a
free board of 9 cm, the Depth of the Side Drain may be taken as
0.81 m + 0.09 m = 0.9 m.

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 Calculation
of Slope of Drain

Using Mannings Formula, the Longitudinal Slope

is calculated.
.
For the Assumed Trapezoidal Section, the
Wetted Area of Cross-section = 0.903 and the
Wetted Perimeter = x 2 + 0.3 = 2.59 m
= = 0.348
= V x = 0.6 x = 0.2425
Slope , S = 0.0588

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4.3.1 Different Types of Road Side

Drain
Surface drain
Sub surface drain
Lined drain
Unlined drain
Roadside drain
Off-road drain

V shaped drain
Trapezoidal drain
Flat bed drain
Saucer or Tick drain
Buried drain

Earthen drain
Masonry drain
Precast Concrete drain

Open drain
Covered drain
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4.3.2 Cross Drainage Structures

(Culverts and Others)
Whenever the streams, rivers or water courses
have to cross by the roadway facilities, cross
drainage structures are to be properly provided.
Sometimes these structures are used to divert the
waterway from the road side drain to a water
course or valley.

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Types of Cross Drainage

Structures
1. Culvert when the linear waterway 6 m
2. Bridge when the linear waterway > 6m
3. Causeways allow the water to flow over the
roadway

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Culverts
Closed conduit placed under the embankment to
carry water across the roadway.
Culverts lead the water from the side drains
under the road to the other (lower) side.
Fitted with aprons, head and wing walls and
installed with a similar backfill.

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Culvert

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Functions of a Culvert
To collect and carry the water across the road so
as not to cause damage to road bank or the
stream bed by scouring.
To allow sufficient waterway to prevent heading
up of water above the road surface.

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Types of Culverts
1. Pipe Culvert
2. Box Culvert
3. Slab Culvert
4. Arch Culvert

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Pipe Culverts
When the stream carries low discharge and
alignment has high embankment, pipe culverts are
considered more suitable.
Pipe is laid slightly inclined.
Minimum diameter of the pipe culvert is limited to
600 mm to facilitate cleaning and avoid blocking.
The standard length of the RCC pipe is fixed at 2.5
m, jointed by collar or tongue and groove.
Pipes may be made of stoneware, concrete, RCC,
etc.
The standard size of pipe culverts are 0.5 m, 0.75
m, 1 m, 1.25 m and 2 m in diameter.
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Box Culverts
Box culvert of square or rectangular shape is
made of RCC.
Rectangular shaped culverts referred to as box
culverts - are commonly used to cater for larger
crossings.

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Slab Culverts
RCC slab is placed over abutments made of
masonry and the span is generally limited to 3 m.

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Arch Culverts
Generally built using brick or stone masonry,
plain cement concrete may also be used.

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Aqueduct
Open or closed conduit sufficiently above the
roadway to drain water across the road.

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Inverted Siphon
Structure with lowering an invert level of conduit
across the road to desired level and both inlet and
outlet pits are provided to receive flow from and
discharge water to the downstream drain
respectively.
Inverted siphons (also called depressed sewers)
allow storm water to pass under obstructions
such as rivers.

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Causeway
Provided instead of culverts on less important
road which saves the construction cost.
Provided where the maximum depth of flow does
not exceed 1.5 m.
May be High Level (Submersible Bridge) or Low
Level (Irish Bridge)

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High Level Causeway (Submersible

Bridge)
Quite above the stream bed and is provided with
vents to allow normal floods to pass through
them.
During heavy floods, causeways may under
water.

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Low Level Causeway (Irish Bridge)

Constructed at the bed level of the stream which
remains dry for most of the time.
Also called Low Water Crossing,causewayin
Australia,Low Level CrossingorLow Water
Bridge or Irish Bridge.
Provides when water flow is low.
Under high flow conditions, water runs over the
roadway and stops the vehicular traffic.
This approach is cheaper than building a bridge to
raise the level of the road above the highest flood
stage of a river, particularly in developing countries
or in semi-arid areas with rare high-volume rain.
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Bridges
Structure constructed over water course to carry
traffic over it.
When clear span is more than 6 m, the cross
drainage structures are called bridges.
According to Span Length:
A) Minor Bridge : Span Length upto 30 m
B) Major Bridge: Span Length > 30 m
C) Long Bridge: Span Length > 120 m

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4.3.3 Different Types of Energy Dissipating

Structures

At outlet of cross drainage structures, there is

always higher velocity than non-scouring velocity
which should be adequately controlled.

Many measures suitable at different locations and

conditions for Controlling Energy and Erosion.

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Types of Energy Dissipating

Structures
Lining Drains

) Ditch Checks

) Fall or Drop Structures

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4.4 Sub-surface Drainage System

Change in moisture content of sub-grade are caused
by fluctuations in ground water table, seepage flow,
percolation of rain water from shoulders, pavement
edge and soil formation slopes and capillary rise of
moisture and even moisture vapour through soil.
In sub-surface drainage of highways, it is tried to keep
the variation of moisture in subgrade soil to a
minimum.
Only the gravitational water is drained by the usual
drainage systems.
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4.4.1 Drainage of Infiltered Water

By providing suitable subsoil drainage system.
Subsoil drain trenches are excavated to below
subgrade level

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Typical Subsoil Drain

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Typical Sub-Pavement Drain

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Foundation
Drains
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4.4.2 Control of Seepage Flow

When the general ground and impervious strata
below are slopping, seepage flow is likely to exist.
If the seepage zone is at depth less than 0.6 to
0.9 m from the sub grade level Use
Longitudinal Pipe Drain in trench filled with filler
material and clay seal may be constructed to
intercept the seepage flow.

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4.4.3 Lowering of Water Table

Highest level of water table should be below the
subgrade.
Practically 1.0 to 1.2 m below subgrade
Relatively permeable soil Longitudinal drains are mainly used
Impermeable soils Transverse drains may be necessary in addition to
longitudinal drains
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4.4.4 Control of Capillary Rise

If the water reaches the sub grade due to
capillary rise is likely to be detrimental, it is
possible to solve the problem by arresting the
capillary rise instead of lowering the water table.
2 types of capillary cut-offs can be used.
A) Granular Capillary Cut-off
B) Impermeable Capillary Cut-off

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Design of Subsurface Drainage System

The size of spacing of subsurface drainage
system would depend on the quantity of water to
be drained off, the type of soil and type drains.
Mostly this is decided based on experience and
other practical considerations.
However, proper filter material should be used for
back filling the drainage trenches and also for use
in all subsurface drainage system.

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