4 Chapter Five21

Slide 5.
Chapter 5
Formulating the research design
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, Research Methods for Business Students, 5th Edition, Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2009
Slide 5.2
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
understand the importance of having thought
carefully about your
research design;
identify the main research strategies and explain
why these should not
be thought of as mutually exclusive;
explain the differences between quantitative and
qualitative data
Slide 5.3
Learning outcomes
collection techniques and analysis procedures;
explain the reasons for adopting multiple methods in the
conduct of research;
consider the implications of adopting different time
horizons for your research design;
explain the concepts of validity and reliability and
identify the main threats to validity and reliability;
understand some of the main ethical issues implied by the
choice of research strategy.
Slide 5.4
The Process of Research Design
Research choices
Research strategies
Time horizons
Slide 5.5
The Process of Research

Design
Your research question will subsequently
inform your choice of research strategy,
your choices of collection techniques and
analysis procedures, and the time horizon
over which you undertake your research
project.
Slide 5.6
Research strategies
Robson (2002) defined research strategy as
the general approach taken in an enquiry
and added that research strategies have been
classified in different ways. While Saunders
et al (2007) defined it as a general plan of
how you will go about answering the
research questions you have set.
Slide 5.7
Research Design and Tactics

The research onion
Figure 5.1 The research onion
Saunders et al, (2009)
Slide 5.8
Research design
Your research design will be the general
plan of how you will go about answering
your research question(s)
Slide 5.9
Research Design
The research design needs
Clear objectives derived from the research question
To specify sources of data collection
To consider constraints and ethical issues
Valid reasons for your choice of design
Slide 5.10
Classification of the research purpose

Exploratory research
is a valuable means
of finding out what is happening to seek new
insights; to ask questions and to assess
phenomena in a new light. It is particularly
useful if you wish to clarify your
understanding of a problem, such as if you
are unsure of precise nature of the problem .
It may well be that time is well spent on
exploratory research, as it may show that the
research is not worth pursuing!
Slide 5.11
Explanatory
There are three principal ways of
conducting explanatory research:
A search of the literature;
Interviewing experts in the subject;
Conducting focus group interviews.
Slide 5.12
Descriptive studies
The object of descriptive research is to portray
an accurate profile of persons, events or
situations. This may be an extension of, or a
forerunner to a piece of exploratory research or,
more often, a piece of explanatory research. It is
necessary to have a clear picture of the phenomena
on which you wish to collect data prior to
collection of data.
Slide 5.13
Explanatory research
Studies that establish causal relationships between
variables may be termed explanatory research. The
emphasis her is on studying a situation or a
problem in order to explain the relationship
between variables. For example, that a cursory
analysis of quantitative data on manufacturing
scrap rates shows a relationship between scrap
rates and the age of machine being operated
Slide 5.14
Research Strategies
Experiment
Action research
Grounded theory
Ethnography
Survey
Case study
Archival research
Slide 5.15
Experiment
Experiment: measuring the effects of
manipulating one variable on another
variable
Slide 5.16
Research Strategies
An experiment will involve
Definition of a theoretical hypothesis

Selection of samples from know populations
Random allocation of samples
Introduction of planned intervention
Measurement on a small number of dependent
variables
Control of all other variables
Slide 5.17
Survey
Survey: collection of information in
standardized form groups of people
Slide 5.18
Research Strategies
Survey: key features
Popular in business research

Perceived as authoritative
Allows collection of quantitative data
Data can be analysed quantitatively
Samples need to be representative
Gives the researcher independence
Structured observation and interviews can be used
Slide 5.19
Case Study
Case study: development of detailed,
intensive knowledge about a single case,
or of a small number of related cases.
Slide 5.20
Research Strategies
Case Study: key features
Provides a rich understanding of a real life context
Uses and triangulates multiple sources of data
A case study can be categorised in four ways
and based on two dimensions:
single case v. multiple case
holistic case v. embedded case
Yin (2003)
Slide 5.21
Single case
A single case is often used where it represents a
critical case or, alternatively, an extreme or unique
case. Conversely, a single case may be selected
because it is typical or because it provides you with
an opportunity to observe and analyze a
phenomenon that few have considered before.
Inevitably, an important aspect of using a single case
is defining the actual case. For many part-time
students this is the organization for which they work
Slide 5.22
multiple case
A case study strategy can also incorporate multiple cases,
that is, more than one case. The rationale for using
multiple cases focuses upon the need to establish whether
the findings of the first case occur in other cases and, as a
consequence, the need to generalize from these findings.
For this reason Yin (2003) argues that multiple
case studies may be preferable to a single case study and
that, where you choose to use a single case study, you will
need to have a strong justification for this choice.
Slide 5.23
holistic case
refers to the unit of analysis. For example,
you may well have chosen to use an
organization by which you have been
employed or are currently employed as your
case. If your research is concerned only with
the organization as a whole then you are
treating the organization as a holistic case
study.
Slide 5.24
embedded case
even though you are researching and are
concerned with a single organization
as a whole, if you wish to examine also a number
of logical sub-units within the
organization, perhaps departments or work groups,
then your case will inevitably involve more than
one unit of analysis. Whatever way you select
these units, this would be called an embedded case
study
Slide 5.25
Action research
Action research: the term has been used
first by Lewin in 1946. It has been
understood by management researchers in a
variety of ways. But there are three
common ideas within the literature. The
first focuses on and emphasizes the purpose
of the research: the management of change.
Slide 5.26
Action research
The second relates to the involvement of the
practitioner in the research and in particular
a close cooperation between practitioners
and researchers. The final theme is that
action research should have implications
beyond the immediate project. In other
words it must be clear that the results could
inform other context.
Slide 5.27
Research Strategies
Action research: key features
Research IN action - not ON action

Involves practitioners in the research
The researcher becomes part of the organisation
Promotes change within the organisation
Can have two distinct foci (Schein, 1999)
the aim of the research and the needs of the sponsor
Slide 5.28
Grounded theory
Grounded theory: Collection of data starts
without the formation of an initial
theoretical framework. Theory is created
from data made by a series of observations.
Slide 5.29
Research Strategies
Grounded theory: key features
Theory is built through induction and deduction
Helps to predict and explain behaviour
Develops theory from data generated by
observations
Is an interpretative process, not a logicodeductive one
Based on Suddaby (2006)
Slide 5.30
Ethnography
Ethnography: Derives from the field of
anthropology. The idea is to interpret the
social world the research subject inhabits
and the way in which they interpret it.
Slide 5.31
Research Strategies
Ethnography: key features
Aims to describe and explain the social world
inhabited by the researcher
Takes place over an extended time period
Is naturalistic
Slide 5.32
Naturalism
It means that in adopting an ethnographic strategy, you will
be researching the phenomenon within the context in which
it occurs and, in addition, not using data collection
techniques that oversimplify the complexities of everyday
life. Given this, it is not surprising that most ethnographic
strategies involve extended participant observation.
However, you need to be mindful that the term naturalism
also has a contradictory meaning that is often associated with
positivism. Within this context it refers to the use of the
principles of scientific method and the use of a scientific
model within research.

Slide 5.33
Research Strategies
Archival research: key features
Uses administrative records and documents as
the principal sources of data
Allows research questions focused on the past
Is constrained by the nature of the records and
documents
Slide 5.34
Research Strategies
The role of the practitioner-researcher
Key features
Research access is more easily available

The researcher knows the organisation
Has the disadvantage of familiarity
The researcher is likely to their own assumptions
and preconceptions
The dual role requires careful negotiation
Slide 5.35
Quantitative and Qualitative

The terms quantitative and qualitative are used
widely in business and management research
to differentiate both data collection techniques
and data analysis procedures. One way of
distinguishing between the two is the focus on
numeric (numbers) or non-numeric(words)
data. Quantitative is predominantly used as a
synonym for any data collection technique
(such as questionnaire) or data analysis
procedure (such as graphs or statistics) that
generates or uses numerical data.
Slide 5.36
Quantitative and Qualitative

qualitative is used predominantly as
a synonym for any data collection
technique (such as an interview) or
data analysis procedure (such as
categorizing data) that generates or
use non-numerical data. Qualitative
therefore can refer to data other than
words, such as pictures and video
clips.
Slide 5.37
Research multiple methods

In choosing your research methods
you will therefore either use a single
data collection technique and
corresponding analysis procedures
(mono method) or use more than
one data collection technique and
analysis procedures to answer your
research question (multiple
methods).
Slide 5.38

This choice is increasingly advocated within
business and management research, where
a single research study may use quantitative
and qualitative techniques and procedures in
combination as well as use primary and
secondary data. If you choose to use a mono
method you will combine either a single
quantitative data collection technique, such
as questionnaires, with quantitative data
analysis procedures
Slide 5.39

or a single qualitative data collection
technique, such as in-depth
interviews, with qualitative data
analysis procedures. In contrast, if you
choose to combine data collection
techniques and procedures using
some form of multiple methods
design, there are four different
possibilities.
Slide 5.40

The term multi-method refers to
those combinations where more
than one data collection technique
is used with associated analysis
techniques, but this is restricted
within either a quantitative or
qualitative world view
Slide 5.41

Thus you might choose to collect quantitative data
using, for example, both questionnaires and
structured observation analyzing these data using
statistical (quantitative) procedures, a multimethod quantitative study. Alternatively, you
might choose to collect qualitative data using, for
example, in-depth interviews and diary accounts and
analyze these data using non-numerical (qualitative)
procedures, a multi-method qualitative study.
Therefore, if you adopted multi-methods you would
not mix quantitative and qualitative techniques and
procedures.
Slide 5.42

Mixed methods approach is the general term for
when both quantitative and qualitative data collection
techniques and analysis procedures are used in a
research design. It is subdivided into two types.
Mixed method research uses quantitative and
qualitative data collection techniques and analysis
procedures either at the same time (parallel) or one
after the other (sequential) but does not combine
them. This means that, although mixed method
research uses both quantitative and qualitative
world views at the research methods stage
quantitative data are analyzed quantitatively
Slide 5.43

and qualitative data are analyzed qualitatively.
In addition, often either quantitative or
qualitative techniques and procedures
predominate. In contrast, mixed-model
research combines quantitative and
qualitative data collection techniques and
analysis procedures as well as combining
quantitative and qualitative approaches at
other phases of the
research such as research question generation.
Slide 5.44

This means that you may take
quantitative data and qualitise it,
that is, convert it into narrative that
can be analysed
qualitatively.Alternatively, you may
quantitise your qualitative data,
converting it into to numerical codes
so that it can be analysed statistically.
Slide 5.45
Multiple research methods

Research choices
Figure 5.4 Research choices
Saunders et al, (2009)
Slide 5.46
Multiple research methods

Reasons for using mixed method designs:
(Table 5.1 )
Triangulation
Facilitation
Complementarity
Generality
Aid interpretation
Study different aspects
Solving a puzzle
Source: developed from Bryman (2006)
Slide 5.47
Triangulation
Use of two or more independent
sources of data or data collection
methods to corroborate research
findings within a study.
Slide 5.48
Facilitation
Use of one data collection method or
research strategy to aid research
using another data collection method
or research strategy within a study
(e.g. qualitative/quantitative
providing hypotheses, aiding
measurement quantitative/qualitative
participant or case selection)
Slide 5.49
Complementarity
Use of two or more research
strategies in order that different
aspects of an investigation can be
dovetailed (e.g. qualitative plus
quantitative questionnaire to fil in
gaps quantitative plus qualitative
questionnaire for issues, interview
for meaning)
Slide 5.50
Generality
Use of independent source of data to
contextualize main study or use quantitative
analysis to provide sense of relative
importance (e.g. qualitative plus
quantitative to set case in broader context;
qualitative quantitative analysis is to
provide sense of relative importance)
Slide 5.51
Aid interpretation
Use of qualitative data to help
explain relationships between
quantitative variables (e.g
quantitative/qualitative)
Slide 5.52
Study different aspects

Quantitative to look at macro
aspects and qualitative to look at
micro aspects
Slide 5.53
Solving a puzzle
Use of an alternative data
collection method when the initial
method reveals unexplainable
results or insufficient data
Slide 5.54
Slide 5.55
Time Horizons
Select the appropriate time horizon
Cross-sectional studies: cross-sectional studies
are the study of a particular phenomenon (or
phenomena) at a particular time.
Longitudinal studies: usually study the change
and development over a period of time.
Slide 5.56
Credibility of research findings

Important considerations
Reliability
Validity
Generalisability
Logic leaps and false assumptions
Slide 5.57
credibility of research findings

how do I know? test: . . . will the evidence and my
conclusions stand up to the closest scrutiny? How
do you know that the advertising campaign for a
new product has resulted in enhanced sales? How
do you know that manual employees in an
electronics factory have more negative feelings
towards their employer than their clerical
counterparts? The answer, of course, is that, in the
literal sense of the question, you cannot know. All
you can do is reduce the possibility of getting the
answer wrong. This is why good research design is
important.
Slide 5.58
Reliability
Reliability refers to the extent to which your
data collection techniques or analysis procedures
will yield consistent findings. It can be assessed
by posing the following three questions:
1 Will the measures yield the same results on
other occasions?
2 Will similar observations be reached by other
observers?
3 Is there transparency in how sense was made
from the raw data?
Slide 5.59
Validity
Validity is concerned with whether the findings are
really about what they appear to be about. Is the
relationship between two variables a causal
relationship? For example, in a study of an
electronics factory we found that employees failure
to look at new product displays was caused not by
employee apathy but by lack of opportunity (the
displays were located in a part of the factory that
employees rarely visited). This potential lack of
validity in the conclusions was minimized by research
design that built in the opportunity for focus groups
after the questionnaire results had been analyzed.
Slide 5.60
Research design ethics

Remember
The research design should not subject the

research population to embarrassment, harm or
other material disadvantage
Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)
Slide 5.61
Summary: Chapter 5
Research design turns a research question and
objectives into a project that considers
Strategies
Choices
Time horizons
Research projects can be categorised as

Exploratory
Descriptive
Explanatory
Research projects may be

Cross-sectional
Longitudinal
Slide 5.62
Summary: Chapter 5
Important considerations
The main research strategies may combined in
the same project
The opportunities provided by using multiple
methods
The validity and reliability of results
Access and ethical considerations

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Slide 5.

The Process of Research Design

The Process of Research

Research Design and Tactics

Figure 5.1 The research onion

Saunders et al, (2009)

Classification of the research purpose

Definition of a theoretical hypothesis

Popular in business research

Research IN action - not ON action

model within research.

Research access is more easily available

Quantitative and Qualitative

Quantitative and Qualitative

Research multiple methods

Research multiple methods

Research multiple methods

Research multiple methods

Research multiple methods

Research multiple methods

Research multiple methods

Research multiple methods

Multiple research methods

Figure 5.4 Research choices

Saunders et al, (2009)

Multiple research methods

Study different aspects

Credibility of research findings

credibility of research findings

Research design ethics

The research design should not subject the

Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

Research projects can be categorised as

Research projects may be

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