Geographic Information System (GIS)

Geographic Information
System (GIS)
BE 377 GI Elective
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Shambhu Paudel Email: oasis.excurrent@gmail.com, Cell :

9841-170723
Unit One: Introduction
9/2/16
Shambhu Paudel Email:

oasis.excurrent@gmail.com, Cell :
9841-170723
Referred textbooks
Lo & Yeung, concepts and
techniques of GIS
Heywood et al, An introduction to
GIS
B Bhatta GIS and RS
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Basic Concept on GIS

Geographic Information System (GIS)
a computerised system that facilitates the phases of data entry, data analysis and data
presentation (maps and others)
A system which use a spatial database to provide answers to quires of a geographical
nature is GIS.
a tool for decision making
combine a layers of information about a place to give an understanding of that place
stores information about world as a collection of thematic layers that can be linked
together by geography
This ,simple but extremely powerful and versatile concept has proven invaluable for
solving many real world problem
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Shambhu Paudel Email: oasis.excurrent@gmail.com, Cell :

9841-170723
GIS Terminologies
Spatial Analysis: Analysis of geometrical orientation, shape, size of a
feature, and its relative position with respect to the position of other
features. Spatial data is described by (X,Y) co-ordinates.
Attribute data: Also called as non spatial data. Information like area,
perimeter, population and other characters or data other than spatial
data is attribute data.
Raster: Regular matrix of value. Use to represent continuous data.
Vector: Use to represent line, point and polygon
Map projection: To transfer the curved earth surface into plane ( flat
sheet of paper or a computer screen) surface is map projection
Map: Hard copy ( e.g.Topo Map)
Image: Digital copy (e.g Satellite image)
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Spatial and non spatial data

in GIS
Spatial data:
Data that define a location. These are in the
form of graphic primitives that are usually
either points, lines, polygons or pixels.
Spatial data includes location, shape, size, and
orientation.
For example, consider a particular square: its center
(the intersection of its diagonals) specifies its
location; its shape is a square; the length of one of
its sides specifies its size; the angle its diagonals
make with, say, the x-axis specifies its orientation.
Spatial data includes spatial relationships
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Non spatial data

Data that relate to a specific, precisely
defined location. The data are often
statistical but may be text, images or multimedia. These are linked in the GIS to spatial
data that define the location.
Non-spatial data (also called attribute or
characteristic data) is that information which
is independent of all geometric considerations.
For example, a persons height, mass, and age
are non-spatial data because they are
independent of the persons location.
Spatial data are generally multi-dimensional and
auto correlated however, non-spatial data are
generally one-dimensional
and independent
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Importance: Questions that GIS can

answer!
Location.what is at?
Long/Lat, or (X,Y)
Condition.where is it?
Non forest area of 200m2 within 100m from the road
Trends.what has changed since?

Change in forest cover
Patterns.what special pattern exist?

Occurring most frequently e.g landslide, tree distribution etc
Modeling.what if?
Conditional cases
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Importance: GIS functions

Data capture
Data comes from many source (digital or paper or GPS etc), are of
many types (nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio) and are stored in
many ways
Data management
Effective data management facilities include data security, data
integrity, data storage and retrieval, and data maintenance
Spatial analysis
Most important functions ( e.g. buffering, overlay, clipping etc)
which makes different from other computer aided design
Presenting results
Scientific
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visualization,oasis.excurrent@gmail.com,
3D, maps
Cell :
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Component of GIS
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Five major components of

GIS
1. Hardware and software
Hardware on which GIS operates
Software are ArcGIS, Quantum GIS, GRASS GIS, SAGA GIS etc
2. Database
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3. People
Urban planner, biologist, natural hazard analyst, geological
engineer, mining engineer, geo informatics engineer, forest
manager and hydrological engineer etc
4. Policies and procedure

Organizational set for data collection and analysis
Choosing right GIS approaches
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Application
These systems are not just thesoftwareandhardware,

but also, and most importantly, thecollection of
information (the database)about where geographic
features (roads, buildings, fire hydrants, pipes, crime
incidents, ponds, streams, etc.) are located in your
community.
Building this database involves compiling the information

from maps and aerial photos, card files, peoples personal
experience, or existing computer databases. A GIS
database integrates all this information so that it can be
used together and is accessible through a single computer,
typically a personal computer (PC), or mobile devices or
online.
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Particularly GIS used for (not limited

to):
Standard Theme Maps
Determining Conformance to Spatial
Criteria for a Building Permit
School Student Walking Distance
Analysis
Landfill side identification
Hazards mapping and zonation
Natural resource management
Fire Equipment Response Distance
Analysis
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Handling spatial data in GIS

GIS is a computer software package for the handling and analysis of
geographic data/ Geographic data are distinguished from non spatial
data in that every value is associated with a location. When used
properly, a geographic information system becomes much more than
the computer package: it involves the geographical data, the
computer hardware, the computer peripherals, the computer
operators and even the decision makers
GIS are now seen as a useful tool for organizing data into suitable
formats for further analysis, some of may be conducted within GIS but
much of which may be conducted outside it
Spatial data is a location defined data in a given space and is 2-D
(sometimes 3-D) and this includes the Universal Transverse Mercator
for projection which defines position on the surface of earth in terms
of Easting (x) and Northing(y) relative to fixed position
Therefore, spatial data ofen presented as (x, y, z) where z can be
elevation or any features
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Unit 2:Real world and

representation of GIS
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Geographic phenomena and

representation by GIS
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Map Annotation
Map can be prepared in any shapes
like landscape or portrait
Main elements of a layout, other than
frame, is map annotation. Title,
legends, scale, labels and north
arrow are the major important part or
annotation of map.
It helps viewer to interoperate the
information appearing on the map.
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Major elements of map/thematic

map
Frame: Holds entire map
Title: Tells the user what information is to look on
the map
Legend: Explains what the colors, pattern, line
types and symbologies on the map represents what.
Scale: Indicates geographical size of the area in
relation to the real ground
North arrow: Shows the orientation of the maps
Insect map: Small map on the same sheet of map
for a larger area that provides details of area
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Maps
Simply defined, maps are pictures of the Earth's surface. They

can be general reference and show landforms, political
boundaries, water, the locations of cities, or in the case
ofthematic maps, show different but very specific topics such
as the average rainfall distribution for an area or the
distribution of a certain disease throughout a county.
Types: political, thematic, resource, road, topographic, physical
maps etc
Thematic Map:A thematic map is a map that focuses on a
particular theme or special topic and they are different from
the aforementioned general reference maps because they do
not just show natural features like rivers, cities, political
subdivisions, elevation and highways. If these items are on a
thematic map, they are background information and are used
as reference points to enhance the map's theme.
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Geographic phenomena:
Tessellations representation
Atessellationof a flat surface
is the tiling of aplaneusing
one or moregeometric
shapes, called tiles, with no
overlaps and no gaps.
tessellations can be generalized
to higher dimensions and a
variety of geometries.
is a collection ofplane
figuresthat fills the plane with
no overlaps and no gaps.
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Tessellations of Geographic Space

Quantizing space (Kemp 1993):
Division of geographic space into a series
of discrete quanta (units), which
represent real geographic data. On
these quanta we perform analytical
operations (individually or collectively).
Continuous and discrete spatial data are
converted into discrete units
Mostly as squares (other shapes are
parallelograms, hexagons, triangles)
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Quad-tree representation
A quadtree is a well-known hierarchical data structure
applied to represent geometric data. It is especially
useful for raster-based data processing and important
for many applications
Quad trees are most often used to partition a two
dimensional space by recursively subdividing it into
four quadrants or regions. The regions may be square or
rectangular, or may have arbitrary shapes. This data
structure was named a quadtree by Raphael Finkel and J.L.
Bentley in 1974.
Quadtrees may be classified according to the type of data
they represent, including areas, points, lines and curves.
Quadtrees may also be classified by whether the shape of
the tree is independent of the order data is processed.
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Modeling surfaces and

networks
One of the fundamental properties that defines how a GIS
handles features, objects, and surfaces in space is its

ability to render in three dimensions (3D)
A 3D surface model is a digital representation of features,
either real or hypothetical, in three-dimensional space.
A 3D surface is usually derived, or calculated, using
specially designed algorithms that sample point, line, or
polygon data and convert it into a digital 3D surface.
ArcGIS can create and store four types of surface
models: raster, triangulated irregular network (TIN), terrain
datasets, and LAS datasets.
These surface models can be created from a variety of data
sources. The two main methods of creating surface models
are interpolation and triangulation.
There are several interpolation methods to create raster
surfaces, such asInverse Distance Weighted,Spline,Kriging
, andNatural Neighbor.
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oasis.excurrent@gmail.com,
Cell :creating a TIN,
You can build triangulated surfaces by
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LAS datasets are all

types of a
functional surface. A
functional surface is a
continuous field of
values that may vary
over an infinite
number of points.
Any of these values

may be represented on
the z-axis in a threedimensional x,y,z
coordinate system, so
they are often called zvalues
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Digital terrain model (DTM)
A digital terrain model (DTM) provides a bare earth

representation of terrain or surface topography.
DTM is different than a digital elevation model (DEM), the
first representing a continuous surface as if all the objects
are removed a bare surface.
For all intents and purposes a DTM represents the earths
land surface.
a DTM represents the earths true surface, regardless of all
of these objects and their changing natures.
DTM can more closely be linked to the earths physical
processes, like water infiltration, overland flow, floods,
vegetation distributions and so on. This is because the
models that drive these processes are each impacted
by 3D space elevation. Water runs downhill quicker on
steeper land etc. These days floods are a huge issue, thus
DTM are in high demand for insurance reasons, as example.
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DTM can also be

useful for man-made
processes and events
including more
accurately siting
telephone towers,
forest observation
points and other
viewshed
determinations.
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Geographic objects and

fields
Ontology is a branch of metaphysics that is concerned with

questions about being or existence. GIScientists have identified two
main ontologies of geographic phenomena: one is object-based, the
other is field-based.
An object-based ontology describes the world as a space that is
filled with discrete, identifiable units (i.e., objects) that have some
sort of spatial reference, usually in the form of geographic
coordinates. For example, some objects you might find in this space
could include: houses, factories, roads, rivers, lakes, or pollution
plumes.
A field-based ontology, on the other hand, describes the world as a
collection of spatial distributions of phenomena. In other words, for
a particular attribute or theme we are interested in (e.g., elevation
or temperature), we look at all of the locations in the particular
space we are interested in and determine how much of that
attribute or what category of that attribute is there.
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Unit 3: Computer
Representation of Geoinformation
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Raster and Vector

Raster data model is a regular matrix of values (fig in next slide). If the
values are assigned to grid points, the raster usually represents a
continuous field ( elevation, temperature, chemical concentration) is
sometimes called lattice. If the values are assigned to grid cells (pixels), it
represents an image (satellite image, scanned map). If the cell values
represent category numbers, one or more attributes can be assigned to
that cell using a database. The grid cells are organized and accessed by
rows and columns. The area represented by a square grid cells is
computed from the length of its side, called resolution. Resolution
controls the level of spatial detail captured by the raster data.
Vector data model is used to represent areas, lines and points (fig in
next slide). The vector data model is based on arc node representation,
consisting of non intersecting lines called as arcs. An arc is stored as a
series of points given by (x,y) or (x,y,z) co-ordinates pairs or triplets (with
height). The two end points of an arc are called nodes. Points along a
line are called as vertices. Two consecutive (x,y) pairs define an arc
segment. Arcs that outline areas (polygons) are called area edges
or boundaries. Each map feature is assigned a category number which is
used to link the geometric data with descriptive, attribute data.
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Point features are

represented by9841-170723
independent points
given by their co-
Raster Vs Vector Data
Raster data are described by a cell grid, one value per cell where as vector by (x
Vector
Raster
Point
Line
Zone of cells
Polygon
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Raster Vs Vector
Raster used to represent continues features (like
temperature etc) where as vector data for discrete features
(like road, temple etc)
Raster is simple to use and easy for geometric calculation
(size and number of grid) where as vector is comparatively
difficult to use and for geometric calculation.
Vector has more accuracy than raster
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Vector and Raster Representation

of Spatial Fields
Vector
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Raster

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Definition of a Grid
Cell size
Number
of
rows
NODATA cell
(X,Y)
Number of Columns
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Value attribute table for raster

data
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Attributes of grid zones

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Raster GIS
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Triangular Irregular
Networks (TIN)
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a digital means to represent surface

morphology
TINs are a form of vector-based digital
geographic data and are constructed by
triangulating a set of vertices (points)
The vertices are connected with a
series of edges to form a network of
triangles. There are different methods of
interpolation to form these triangles, such
as Delaunay triangulation or distance
ordering.
the points of a TIN are distributed
variably based on analgorithmthat
determines which points are most
necessary to an accurate representation
of the terrain.
TIN models are less widely available than
raster surface models and tend to be
more time consuming to build and
process.

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Data conversion: Raster to

vector
To combine a raster and vector analysis, you need
to convert the one type of data to the other.
Converting between raster and vector formats
allows you to widen the applicability of data, and
need not lead to data degradation.
As with all data conversions, pay careful attention
to the parameters used. The cell size in particular is
critical for the data representation in the output
raster dataset.
There are several geoprocessing tools that will
assist you in converting your raster surface into
vector feature data.
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Unit 4: Data processing

system
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Hardware and software trend in GIS

Hardware trend:
Fast geoprocessing (current personal computers and
workstations used for GIS range from 1 to 5 MIPS but
within the next five years, 20 to 30 MIPS
workstations are likely to occur)
Parallel Processing (perform tasks on several
different processors simultaneously within the same
computer
Memory (cost of storing large GIS datasets will come
down)
Workstations/Networks
Hardware for specialized processing functions
Operating systems
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Software trend:
Database management systems (queries and analysis

typically do not modify the data)
Relational DBMSs (trend toward using relational DBMSs
(often with SQL style user interfaces), because of their
"open architecture; object-oriented database structures
are being proposed for GIS use)
Fourth Generation Languages (the trend in GISs is toward
the use of Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs) which
provide commands, tools, procedures, and report writers to
permit easy ad hoc querying of a database
Towards GIS system integration (the marketplace
increasingly demands compatibility between diverse
hardware and GIS software)
Display products (improved cartographic products)
Interfaces to other technologies (interfaces between GIS,
CADD, remote sensing, image processing, architectural
graphics, and other technologies are going to be
increasingly easy to create)
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User interfaces (more sophisticated,
flexible and well
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Hardware for data

input and output
(digitizers, plotters
and scanners)
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GIS data capture can come from

remote sensing and surveying, or it
can be derived from non-digital
sources through digitization and
scanning. Data collection and
conversion has traditionally been the
most expensive and time-consuming
aspect of GIS projects.
The tablet digitizing process
historically existed as an acceptable
method for creating data points with
x and y values. However, this timedraining process was often fraught
with challenges - difficulty using the
digitizing puck, tablet malfunctions,
source materials changing size,
registration problems, edgematching complexity and more.
Those days are drawing to a close.
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With today's more advanced digitizing methods, it is now

possible to scan in a map, bring the scanned map into a
GIS, georeference the scanned map, zoom in on the screen
and digitize select features. This revolution in technology
means users can zoom in on images as much as is needed,
digitize using a computer mouse, and more easily edgematch for faster map creation.
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GIS Software
Arc View
ArcGIS
Geographical Resources Analysis
Support System (GRASS GIS)
Quantum GIS
SAGA GIS
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Unit 5: Database concept
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DBMSs in GIS
GI systems have embedded DBMSs,
or link to a commercial DBMS like
Acess, Dbase etc
Most current GIS data management
is in relational databases
Retrieve or searching operation: by
attribute, condition or location
SQL is a standard interface to
relational databases and is supported
by many GISs.
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An ArcGIS geodatabase is a collection of

geographic datasets of various types held in a
common file system folder, a Microsoft Access
database, or a multiuser relational database
ArcGIS works with geographic information

managed in geodatabases as well as in numerous
GIS file formats. The geodatabase is the
native data structure for ArcGIS and is the
primary data format used for editing and
data management.
A key geodatabase concept is the dataset. It is
the primary mechanism used to organize and use
geographic information in ArcGIS. The
geodatabase contains three primary dataset
types: Feature classes; Raster datasets;
Tables.
Geo-database and
DBMSs in GIS
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A feature class is stored as a table. Each row

represents one feature. In the polygon feature
class table below, the Shape column holds the
polygon geometry for each feature. The value
Polygon is used to specify that the field contains
the coordinates and geometry that defines one
polygon in each row.

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Tables provide the primary storage mechanism for geographic

datasets. SQL is very strong at query and set processing of rows in
tables, and the geodatabase strategy is designed to leverage these
capabilities.
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Unit 6: Data sources, Data

input and Data quality
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Data source: data capture

Data capture: is the operation of encoding
(entering) data for inclusion into a digital database.
Digitizing is process of data capture, which enables
to develop vector database
If vector database is created, it can be converted to
raster for further spatial analysis
Most of project (60-80%) invest for database
management
Sources for data: Satellite images, analog,
reports, aerial photo, Google Earth, Topographic
Maps and survey (GPS) etc
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Methods of data acquisition

Primary data: Field inventory using
GPS and digitization
Secondary: Satellite based data
(images), reports etc
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Digitizing (or digitization)

Process of converting an analog data into a
digital format by providing co-ordinates and
is usable by GIS software to create vector data is
digitize.
This is the process of creating a vector digital
database by creating point, line and polygon
objects.
It can be done by two methods: map to image
and image to image
This process is often followed by Georefernce
Root mean square error (RMSE) must be less than
0.0000..to increase the precise level
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Geo reference
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Digitizing point features is simply the process of creating a

single point feature with an x,y coordinate
Digitizing lines involves creating a line feature that consists of
a node (start and end) and a series of vertices which indicate a
change of direction along that line. Straight features require
fewer vertices, curved/complex features require more vertices.
Digitizing Polygons involves creating a set of connected lines.
Editing tools simplify the process of closing polygon features
Some Issues
Digitizing involves creating features from a specific scale.
Small scale maps (i.e. maps of large spatial areas - given a
fixed map size) generalize features, large scale maps (i.e. maps
of small spatial areas - given a fixed map size) represent
features more accurately with less generalization. A key is that
the digitized dataset you create is only as good as your source
data.
Aerial Photography
Aerial photography is defined as
the science of obtaining
photographs from the air
using various platforms, mostly
aircraft, for studying the surface
of the earth.
The sun provides the source
of energy (electromagnetic
radiation or EMR) and the
photosensitive film acts as a
sensor to record the images
Variations in the gray tones
of the various images in a
photograph indicate
different amounts of energy
reflected from the objects
Types of aerial photo

Depending upon the scale, tilt, coverage, and film , aerial photo
can be classify into different forms:
Scale: Large, Medium and Small Scale
1:5000.................???
1:20,000.................????
1:50,000.............?????
Tilt: Vertical ( within 3 degree), Oblique (more than 3 degree) and

High Oblique (when camera axis is horizontal)
Coverage:
Narrow angle : angle of coverage less than50
Normal angle : angle of coverage of 60.
Wide angle : angle of coverage of 90 .
Super-wide angle : angle of coverage of 120
GPS: What it is?

A network of
satellites that
continuously transmit
coded information,
which makes it possible
to precisely identify
locations on earth by
measuring distance
from the satellites
24 satellite network
around the world at
altitude of 20200Km
6 circular orbits with
How does it work?
Means is satellite
ranging (triangulation)
Satellite transmit time
encoded radio signals
to receiver
The time-of-arrival is
compared to time-oftransmission
The delta-T is
multiplied by the
speed of light to
obtain the range
Xll
X
l
ll
Vl V ll
Vl
l
ll
l lV
l
l
lX
Range = Time Taken x

Speed of Light
Multi-Satellite Ranging: Triangulation

for identifying position
range puts user on the

spherical face of the cone.
Intersecting
with a 2nd
range restricts user to the
circular arcs.
A 3rd
range constrains
user to 1 of the 2 points.
Errors in GPS
1. Satellite Geometry
Satellite geometry can
affect the quality of
signals and accuracy of
receiver trilateration.
Good
Poor
Satellite position can

be used as an indicator
of the quality of a
receivers triangulated
position.
2. Atmospheric Delay
Io
nosph
ere
T
ropo
sphe
re
4. Multipath Error
5. Human Error
Use
of GPS
Power
Grid
Interfaces
Personal
Precision
Navigation
Surveying
Trucking
&
Shipping
farming
&
Mapping
Aviation
Railroads
Recreation
Communications
Fishing
Off
shore
Drilling
&
Boating
Remote Sensing (RS)

Background of RS
RS is a general term which describes the action of
obtaining information about an object with a sensor
from a distance
Is the science of acquiring, processing and
interpreting images of the earths surface from
aircraft or satellites
Is the science of obtaining information about an
object, area or phenomenon without having physical
contact.
Is the detection, recognition, or evaluation of
reflected or emitted electromagnetic energy
Shambhu paudel Email:
oasis.excurrent@gmail.com Cell:
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Therefore,
Action of obtaining information without having
physical contact with target objects from
aircraft or satellite using Electro Magnetic
Spectrum (reflected or emitted from object) is
RS.
Where,
EMS is form of energy which produce observable effects when it strike the
matter
Just imagine yourself:

Eye (as sensor)-----light (EMS)----Mental (Data
stored)----Analyzed or interpreted---Shambhu paudel Email:
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Retransmi
ssion
through
atmospher
e
Fig: Electromagnetic remote sensing of
earth surface
A/D= Source of ray
B=Propagation of energy through
atmosphere
C=Earth surface feature
D=Sensing system
(satellite) Cell:
oasis.excurrent@gmail.com
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E= Receiver/control
room
Do not forget, two stages of RS

process
Data acquisition: Image taking process
Data analysis: Interpretation and
analysis steps

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Electromagnetic spectrum or radiation

(EMS/R)
Sun, most obvious source of EM energy
However, all matter at temperature
above absolute zero emit continuously
EMR
Thus, terrestrial material objects are
source of radiation with different
magnitude and spectral composition
The total range of wavelength from
gamma rays to radio waves is
commonly referred to as EMS
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Data quality and data standards

Data qualityrefers to the level of quality ofdata. There are
many definitions of data quality but data are generally
considered high quality if "they are fit for their intended
uses inoperations,decision makingand planning.
Data are the result of a production process, and the manner
in which this process is performed clearly affects data
reliability
Responsibility for assessing whether a database meets the
needs of a particular application has therefore shifted to the
consumer who is in a position to make such an assessment.
This is referred to as determining fitness-for-use
The state of completeness, validity, consistency,
timeliness and accuracy that makes data appropriate for
a specific use
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Data quality components
For geographical phenomena, data quality can be differentiated in

space, time, and theme.
For each of these dimensions, several components of quality
(including accuracy, precision, consistency, and completeness) can be
identified.
Accuracy (spatial, temporal and thematic): A useful starting point for
discussing accuracy is the entityattributevalue model, which serves
as the conceptual basis for most database implementations of realworld phenomena. According to this model, entities represent realworld phenomena (such as streets, counties, or hazardous waste
sites), attributes specify the relevant properties of these objects
(such as width or number of lanes), and values give the specific
qualitative or quantitative measurements pertaining to a particular
attribute
Resolution (spatial, temporal and thematic): Precision refers to the
amount of detail that can be discerned. It is also known as granularity
or resolution.
Consistency: Consistency refers to the absence of apparent
contradictions in a database
Completeness: Completeness
to the relationship between the
Shambhurefers
Paudel Email:
9/2/16
oasis.excurrent@gmail.com,
Cell :
objects in the database
and the abstract universe
of all such objects.
9841-170723
Data quality components in detail
9/2/16

9841-170723
Digitizing errors and their correction

Overshot: Going beyond the entity that was supposed to be connected.
Correction: Clipping
Undershoot: Failure to connect the node to the object it was supposed to be connected
Correction: Moved or snapped to the object to which it should have been connected
Unclosed polygon: First and last node not ending at the same point to be polygon
Correction: Move on of the node to connect with the others rather than constructing
segment
Silvers (polygon overlaps): Common lines between adjacent polygons are required
to digitize twice. Failure to digitize exactly the correct location.
Correction: Matching vertices
Attribute errors: Mis coding of non spatial information
Correction: Attention
Pseudo node: False node or unnecessary node in a geometric link that is shared by
only two objects.
Correction: Removing node
Clustered node: Nodes of multiple linear entities are left without connectivity that
were supposed to be connected in a same point
Correction: Snapping them (all node) to the centermost node
9/2/16

9841-170723

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Shambhu Paudel Email: oasis.excurrent@gmail.com, Cell :

Unit One: Introduction

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Basic Concept on GIS

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Spatial and non spatial data

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Non spatial data

Importance: Questions that GIS can

Trends.what has changed since?

Patterns.what special pattern exist?

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Importance: GIS functions

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Five major components of

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4. Policies and procedure

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These systems are not just thesoftwareandhardware,

Building this database involves compiling the information

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Particularly GIS used for (not limited

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Handling spatial data in GIS

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Unit 2:Real world and

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Geographic phenomena and

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Major elements of map/thematic

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Simply defined, maps are pictures of the Earth's surface. They

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Tessellations of Geographic Space

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Modeling surfaces and

handles features, objects, and surfaces in space is its

LAS datasets are all

Any of these values

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Digital terrain model (DTM)

A digital terrain model (DTM) provides a bare earth

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DTM can also be

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Geographic objects and

Ontology is a branch of metaphysics that is concerned with

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Raster and Vector

Point features are

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given by their co-

Raster Vs Vector Data

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