RESEARCH DESIGNS

Quantitative and Qualitative

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5 TYPES OF QUALITATIVE
METHODS
Ethnography Narrative Phenomenological
Grounded Theory Case Study

1. ETHNOGRAPHY
Ethnographic research is probably the most familiar
and applicable type of qualitative method.
In ethnography, you immerse yourself in the target
participants' environment to understand the goals,
cultures, challenges, motivations, and themes that
emerge.
Ethnography has its roots in cultural anthropology
where researchers immerse themselves within a
culture, often for years!
Rather than relying on interviews or surveys, you
experience the environment first hand, and
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FOR EXAMPLE,
one way of uncovering the unmet needs
of customers is to "follow them home"
and observe them as they interact with
the product;
You don't come armed with any
hypotheses to necessarily test; rather,
you're looking to find out how a product
is used.
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2. NARRATIVE
The narrative approach weaves together a sequence
of events, usually from just one or two individuals to
form a cohesive story.
You conduct in-depth interviews, read documents,
and look for themes; in other words, how does an
individual story illustrate the larger life influences
that created it.
Often interviews are conducted over weeks, months,
or even years, but the final narrative doesn't need
to be in chronological order.
Rather it can be presented as a story (or narrative)
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FOR EXAMPLE,
a narrative approach can be an appropriate
method for knowing a story;
Analysis of story from surveysin-depth
interviews with individual scan provide the
details that help describe the culture,
whether it's a person living with multiple
disease, a prospective student applying for
college, or a working mom.
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3. PHENOMENOLOGICAL
When you want to describe an event, activity,
or phenomenon, the aptly named
phenomenological study is an appropriate
qualitative method.
In a phenomenological study, you use a
combination of methods, such as conducting
interviews, reading documents, watching
videos, or visiting places and events, to
understand the meaning participants place
on whatever's being examined. You rely on
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 Like other qualitative methods, you don't start

with a well-formed hypothesis.
In a phenomenological study, you often
conduct a lot of interviews,
usually between 5 and 25 for common themes
, to build a sufficient dataset to look for
emerging themes and to use other
participants to validate your findings.
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FOR EXAMPLE,
there's been an explosion in the last 5 years in
online courses and training.
But how do students engage with these courses?
While you can examine time spent and content
accessed using log data and even assess student
achievement vis-a-vis in-person courses, a
phenomenological study would aim to better
understand the students experience and how that
may impact comprehension of the material.
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4. GROUNDED THEORY
Whereas a phenomenological study looks to
describe the essence of an activity or event,
grounded theory looks to provide an explanation or
theory behind the events.
You use primarily interviews and existing documents
to build a theory based on the data. You go through
a series of open and ended questions to identify
themes and build the theory.
Sample sizes are often also largerbetween 20 to
60with these studies to better establish a theory.
Grounded theory can help inform design decisions
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FOR EXAMPLE,
a private school increases or maintains
high enrolment in spite of high tuition
fee
Continuous professional update

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5. CASE STUDY
Made famous by the Harvard Business
School, even mainly quantitative researchers
can relate to the value of the case study in
explaining an organization, entity, company,
or event.
A case study involves a deep understanding
through multiple types of data sources.
Case studies can be explanatory, exploratory,
or describing an event.
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FOR EXAMPLE,
a case study of how a large multinational company introduced UX
methods into an agile development
environment would be informative to
many organizations.
Battered women experiences after
leaving a shelter
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SUMMARY
The table below summarizes the differences between the five
qualitative methods.
Method
Ethnography
Narrative

Phenomenological

Grounded Theory
Case Study

Focus
Context or culture
Individual experience &
sequence
People who have
experienced a
phenomenon
Develop a theory from
grounded in field data
Organization, entity,
individual, or event

Sample Size

Data Collection

--

Observation & interviews

1 to 2

Stories from individuals &

documents

5 to 25

20 to 60
--

Interviews
Interviews, then open
and axial coding
Interviews, documents,
reports, observations

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TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH

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A. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1. True Experimental Design
2. Quasi Experimental Design

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ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Randomization
ControlManipulation

RANDOMIZATION

Participants being assigned to

either receive
(experimental
group) or not receive
(control
group),
the treatment
condition or intervention
(IV).

METHOD OF RANDOMIZATION

Lottery method
Tossing a coin
Random number table
Computer

MANIPULATION

Manipulation is the process

of maneuvering the IV, so
that its effect on the
dependent variable (D.V)
can be observed/measured.

METHOD OF MANIPULATION

Researcher gives intervention to

experimental group and withholds
it to the control group or
administers some other treatment.
E.g. A particular teaching strategy
is being used to one group

CONTROL

Control is for elimination of bias.

Control group refers to a group of
subjects, whose performance is
used to evaluate the performance
of experimental group on same
D.V.

CONTROL
Eg. Effect of nutrient diet on the
weight of premature infant in two
weeks.
Comparison of post intervention
weight with pre-intervention weight
determines the effectiveness of
nutrient diet.

CONTROL

The type of experimental

design is determined by the
amount of control the
researcher is able to exercise
over the research condition.

1. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

1.1 Classic experimental design/pretest-post test control group design
Use two different groups to evaluate the effect of paracetamol with
sponge bath.
Experimental GroupX
Control Group-Y

Pre test

Treatment (X)

Pre test

Post test (x)

Post test (y)

Group X - R O1 X O2
(Experimental group)

Group Y - R O1 O2 (Control

R- Randomize
O
Observation/Mea
surement

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1. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

1.1 Classic experimental design/pretest-post test control group design
Use two different groups to evaluate the effect of paracetamol with
sponge bath.
Experimental GroupX

Pre test

Control Group-Y

Pre test

Treatment (X)
Paracetamol with
Sponge bath
Sponge bath only

Post test (x)

Post test (y)

Example
Group X Paracetamol with Sponge Bath (IDV)-->reduction of
temperature (DV)
Group E Paracetamol (IDV) -->reduction
of temperature (DV)
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EXAMPLE
Effectiveness of the use of multimedia in
teaching Noli Me Tangere
Experimental
Group-X
Control
Group-Y

Pre test
Pre test

Treatment
(X)

Post test (x)

Post test (y)

Example
Group X Use of multimedia in teaching (IDV) --> increase classroom
participation (DV)
Group Y Traditional method (IDV)
--> increase classroom
participation (DV)
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1. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

1.1 Post-test only / control group design

Use two different groups to evaluate the effect of time to the

classroom performance of the students.
Experimental GroupX

Treatment (X)

Control Group-Y

R X O1 (Experimental
group)

R O1 (Control group)

Post test (x)

Post test (y)

R- Randomize
O
Observation/Mea
surement

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2. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

A quasi experimental are subject to
concerns regarding internal validity, because
the treatment and control groups may not
be comparable at baseline.
With random assignment, study participants
have the same chance of being assigned to
the intervention group or the comparison
group.
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2. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

2.1 Non equivalent control group design

R O1
R O3

O2
O4

Effect = (O2 O1)

(O4 O3)
R = Randomization.
O = Observation or
measurement
X = Treatment orhttp://www.measuringu.com/blog/qual-methods.php

2. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

2.1 Non equivalent control group design

Example:
A non-equivalent control group design
was used by Valliammal Sudhakar
(2008) to study the knowledge, attitude
and practice towards physical well being
of a group of IV, V, VIth grade students
in two different schools.
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2. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

2.2 Time series design

The time series design, a single group

experiment comprises of series of
observation in the before-time period to
establish a baseline.
The experimental independent variable is
then introduced,
Followed by another series of observation to
examine the effect of the independent
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2. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

2.2 Time series design
2.2.1 Time series Design (single group)

Befo
re

Aft
er

...

...

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2. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

2.2 Time series design
2.2.1 Time series Design (single group)

Example:
Students will be given series of quizzes and exams in
different period of time to identify the competencies
that they need to improve. Then, Intervention will be
given. A series of quizzes and exams will be given
after to assess their performance.
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2. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

2.2 Time series design
2.2.2 The Multiple Time Series Design
Time series non-equivalent control group design (QED)
Before

After

..
E O1 O2 O3 O4 O5

O6 O7 O8 O9 10

C O1 O2 O3 O4 O5
- O6 O7 O8 O9 10

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2. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

2.2 Time series design
2.2.2 The Multiple Time Series Design
Time series non-equivalent control group design (QED)

Example:
Students who got low grades in Math from
different levels were given series of quizzes
and exam to identify their weaknesses.
Remedial were given to the students after a
grading period. Series of quizzes and exams

B. NON-EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
DESCRIPTIVE
Survey

Correlational

Comparative

Ex-Post Facto Studies

Evaluative

Methodological

1. SURVEY STUDIES
Surveys are commonly used in disciplines such
as psychology, health, marketing, sociology,
governance, and demographics.
Survey research is an efficient way of gathering
data to help address a research question.
The main challenge is developing reliable and
valid measures and sampling representative
data.

2. CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
In psychology, correlational research
can be used as the first step before an
experiment begins.
It can also be used if experiments cannot
be conducted.
It determines if a relationship exists
between two or more variables, and if so,
to what degree the relationship occurs.
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2. CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLE
Correlational studies can suggest a
relationship exists between variables.
However, it CANNOT prove that one variable
causes a change in another.
If there are no associations between the
variables tested, then there are no causal
connections between them.
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2. CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
EXAMPLE
you observe students with low attendance to
see if it affects their grades
If those students get low grades, this
suggests there is a causal relationship
between a lack of class attendance and
academic performance.
However, with only two variables available, it
cannot be proved that these students will get
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3. EX-POST FACTO ANALYSIS

(CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE DESIGN)

Involves comparison of two or more groups on a

single endogenous variables.
The characteristic that differentiates these groups
is the exogenous variable.
Causal comparative studies are also called ex post
facto because the investigator has no control over
the exogenous variable.
Whatever happened occurred before the researcher
arrived.
We can never know with certainty that the two

3. EX-POST FACTO ANALYSIS

(CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE DESIGN)
EXAMPLE

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3. EX-POST FACTO ANALYSIS

(CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE DESIGN)
EXAMPLE

It might be observed that students from one

town have higher grades than students from a
different town attending the same high school.
Would just "being from a certain town" explain
the differences?
In an ex post facto study, specific reasons for the
differences would be explored, such as differences
in income, ethnicity, parent support, etc.
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3. EX-POST FACTO ANALYSIS

(CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE DESIGN)

It is important to recognize that, in a

relational study, "cause and effect" cannot be
claimed. All that can be claimed is that that
there is a relationship between the variables.
For that matter, variables that are completely
unrelated could, in fact, vary together due to
nothing more than coincidence.
That is why the researcher needs to establish
a plausible reason (research hypothesis) for
why there might be a relationship between

3. EX-POST FACTO ANALYSIS

(CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE DESIGN)

For instance, it might be found that all

football teams with blue uniforms won last
week. There is no likely reason why the
uniform color had any relationship to the
games' outcomes, and it certainly was not
the cause for victory.
Similarly, you must be careful about claiming
that your Extension program was the "cause"
of possible results. is a relationship between
the variables.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
Comparative researchers examine patterns of
similarities and differences across a moderate
number of cases.
The typical comparative study has anywhere
from a handful to fifty or more cases.
The number of cases is limited because one
of the concerns of comparative research is to
establish familiarity with each case included
in a study.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
Like qualitative researchers, comparative
researchers consider how the different parts
of each case - those aspects that are relevant
to the investigation - fit together, they try to
make sense of each case.
Thus, knowledge of cases is considered an
important goal of comparative research,
independent of any other goal.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
The Goals of Comparative Research
3.1 Exploring Diversity
The comparative approach is better suited for addressing
patterns of diversity.
Diversity is most often understood in terms of types of
cases.
The typical goal of a comparative study is to unravel the
different causal conditions connected to different outcomes causal patterns that separate cases into different subgroups.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
The Goals of Comparative Research
3.1 Exploring Diversity
This explicit focus on diversity distinguishes the comparative
approach from the qualitative approach.
Recall that in qualitative research the goal is often to clarify
categories with respect to the concepts they exemplify by
examining similarities across the instances of a category.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
A simple example: generally, governments
that are less democratic tend to be more
repressive. However, there are many
instances of repression by democratically
elected governments and many instances of
political tolerant and lenient governments
that are not democratic.
To understand government repression fully, it
is necessary to go beyond the simple
identification of political repression with an

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
The Goals of Comparative Research
3.2 Interpreting Cultural or Historical Significance
Comparative researchers focus explicitly on patterns of
similarities and differences across a range of cases.
The comparative approach focuses on differences between
cases and the differentiation of types, it facilitates historical
interpretation.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
The Goals of Comparative Research
3.2 Interpreting Cultural or Historical Significance
Consider the category revolution.
Some revolutions imply change those who are in power of
alter other political arrangements without implementing any
major changes in society.
The revolutionaries that overthrew Ferdinand Marcos in the
Philippines did not attempt any fundamental changes in
Philippine society.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
The Goals of Comparative Research
3.2 Interpreting Cultural or Historical Significance
Other revolutions, by contrast bring with them regimes that
seek to alter society fundamentally.
Kings are beheaded; property is confiscated; basic social
patterns and relations are changed forever. R
evolutionary social changes of this nature were attempted
after the French Revolution of 1789, the Russian Revolution
of 1917, and the Chinese Revolution of 1949.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
The Goals of Comparative Research
3.3 Advancing Theory
Several basic features of the comparative approach make it
a good strategy for advancing theory.
These features include its use of flexible frames, its explicit
focus on the causes of diversity, and its emphasis on the
systematic analysis of similarities and differences in the
effort to specify how diversity is patterned.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
The Goals of Comparative Research
3.3 Advancing Theory
Several basic features of the comparative approach make it
a good strategy for advancing theory.
These features include its use of flexible frames, its explicit
focus on the causes of diversity, and its emphasis on the
systematic analysis of similarities and differences in the
effort to specify how diversity is patterned.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
The Goals of Comparative Research
3.3 Advancing Theory
When conducting their research, comparative researchers
are more explicitly concerned with causation and causal
complexity than are most qualitative researchers.
For example, when comparative researchers differentiate
types (such as types of government repression), they also
try to specify the combinations of causal conditions
conductive to each type.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
The Goals of Comparative Research
3.3 Advancing Theory
What causes some regimes to concentrate their repressive
efforts on regime opponents?
What causes others to focus their efforts on purging
troublesome members of the ruling party.
The emphasis is on causation is central to theory because
most theories in the social sciences are concerned with
explaining how and why - that is, with specifying the causes
of social phenomena.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
The Goals of Comparative Research
3.3 Advancing Theory
To assess causation, comparative researchers study how
diversity is patterned.
They compare cases with each other and highlight the
contrasting effects of different causes.
Comparative researchers view each case as a combination
of characteristics and examine similarities and differences in
combinations of characteristics across cases in their effort to
find patterns.

5. EVALUATIVE STUDIES
Evaluation research, sometimes called program
evaluation, refers to a research purpose rather than a
specific method.
This purpose is to evaluate the impact of social
interventions such as new teaching methods,
innovations in parole, and a host of others.
Evaluation research is a form of applied researchit is
intended to have some real-world effect.
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5. EVALUATIVE STUDIES
Types of Evaluative Studies
4.1 Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation seeks to understand the outcomes or
effects of something,
for example where a test in of children in school is used to
assess the effectiveness of teaching or the deployment of a
curriculum.
The children in this case are not direct beneficiaries - they
are simply objects that contain information that needs to be
extracted.

5. EVALUATIVE STUDIES
Types of Evaluative Studies
4.1 Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluations can assess such as:
Finance: Effect in terms of cost, savings, profit and so on.
Impact: Broad effect, both positive and negative, including
depth, spread and time effects.
Outcomes: Whether desired or unwanted effects are achieved.
Secondary analysis: Analysis of existing data to derive
additional information.
Meta-analysis: Integrating results of multiple studies.

5. EVALUATIVE STUDIES
Types of Evaluative Studies
4.2 Formative Evaluation
Formative evaluation is used to help strengthen or improve
the person or thing being tested.
For example where a test of children in school is used to
shape teaching methods that will result in optimal learning.

5. EVALUATIVE STUDIES
Types of Evaluative Studies
4.2 Formative Evaluation
Formative evaluations can assess such as:
Implementation: Monitoring success of a process or
project.
Needs: Looking at such as type and level of need.
Potential: The ability of using information for formative
purpose.

6. METHODOLOGICAL STUDIES

Methodological studies are

concerned with the
development, testing and
evaluation of research
instruments and methods