6

Proteins: Crucial
Components of All
Body Tissues

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

What Are Proteins?

Proteins: large, complex molecules found in
cells of all living things
Dictated by genetic material (DNA)
Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
Made from 20 different amino acids

The Building Blocks of

Proteins
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Amino Acids
Nine essential amino acids
Cannot be produced in sufficient quantities to
meet physiological needs
Must be obtained from food

Nonessential amino acids

Can be synthesized in sufficient quantities

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Amino Acids
Transamination
Transfer amine group from an essential amino acid to a
different acid group and R group

Conditionally essential amino acid

Nonessential amino acid becomes essential
Phenylketonuria (PKU): tyrosine becomes a
conditionally essential amino acid that must be provided
by the diet

Deanimation/Transanimation
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

How Are Proteins Made?

Proteins are long chains of amino acids
Peptide bonds join amino acids together
Gene expression is the process by which cells
use genes to make proteins
Gene: segment of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
that serves as a template for the synthesis
(expression) of a particular protein

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

How Are Proteins Made?

Transcription: messenger RNA copies the
genetic information from DNA
Translation: the genetic information in RNA is
converted into the amino acid sequence of a
protein

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

How Are Proteins Made?

Protein turnover
Existing proteins are degraded to provide the building
blocks for new proteins
Amino acid pool includes amino acids from food and
cellular breakdown

Protein organization determines function

Sequential order of the amino acids
Spiral shape from twist in amino acid chain

Protein Synthesis
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protein Denaturation
Proteins uncoil and lose their shape
Damaging substances: heat, acid, base,
heavy metal, alcohol
Protein function is lost

Denatured enzyme
High fever
Blood pH out of normal range
During digestion

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protein in the Diet

For protein synthesis, all essential amino
acids must be available to the cell
Limiting amino acid
Essential amino acid that is missing or in the
smallest supply
Slows down or halts protein synthesis

Inadequate energy consumption

Limits protein synthesis

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protein in the Diet

Incomplete protein (low quality): insufficient
essential amino acids
Does not support growth and health

Complete protein (high quality): sufficient

amounts of all nine essential amino acids
Derived from animal and soy protein

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protein in the Diet

Mutual supplementation: combine two or
more incomplete protein sources to make a
complete protein
Complementary proteins: two or more foods
are combined to supply all nine essential
amino acids for a complete protein

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protein Digestion
Protein digestion begins in the stomach
Hydrochloric acid denatures protein strands
and activates pepsin
Pepsin: enzyme breaks down proteins into
short polypeptides and amino acids
Gastrin: hormone controls hydrochloric acid
production and pepsin release

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protein Digestion
Digestion continues in the small intestine
Pancreatic enzymes (proteases) complete protein
digestion
Special sites (small intestine) transport amino acids,
dipeptides, tripeptides
High doses of individual amino acid supplements
can lead to amino acid toxicity and deficiencies

Protein Digestion
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protein Quality
Methods for estimating protein quality
Chemical score
Protein digestibility corrected amino acid score
(PDCAAS)

Animal protein and many soy products are

highly digestible (90% absorption)
Protein Absorption
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Functions of Proteins

Cell growth, repair, maintenance

Enzymes and hormones
Fluid and electrolyte balance
Acidbase balance
Immune system
Energy source
Nutrient transport and storage

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protein Adequacy
Nitrogen balance determines protein needs
Positive nitrogen balance
Negative nitrogen balance
In nitrogen balance

Nitrogen Balance
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

RDA for Protein

RDA = 0.8 g per kg body weight per day
Recommended percentage of energy is
1035% of total energy intake
Protein needs are higher during growth and
development (children, adolescents, and
pregnant/lactating women)

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Too Much Protein Can Be Harmful

High cholesterol and heart disease
Animal-protein-rich diets are associated with high
blood cholesterol levels (saturated fat)

Contribution to bone loss

High-protein diets increase calcium excretion and
possibly lead to bone loss

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Too Much Protein Can Be Harmful

Kidney disease
High protein intakes are associated with an
increased risk among susceptible individuals
People with diabetes have higher rates of kidney
disease and may benefit from a lower-protein diet
Maximum of 2 g of protein per kilogram body
weight each day is safe for healthy people
Fat Synthesis from Excess
Protein
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protein Sources

Meats
Milk-based products
Soy products
Legumes
Whole grains
Nuts
Quorn

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Vegetarian Diets
Vegetarianism: restricting the diet to foods of
plant origin
People chose vegetarianism for:

Health benefits
Ecological reasons
Religious reasons
Ethical reasons
Concerns over food safety

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Health Benefits of Vegetarianism

Lower fat and total energy intake

Lower blood pressure
Reduced risk of heart disease
Fewer digestive problems
Reduced risk of some cancers
Reduced risk of kidney disease, kidney
stones, and gallstones

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Challenges of Vegetarian Diets

Can be low in some nutrients

Associated with disordered eating
Varied and adequate diet planning
Soy and complementary proteins
Vegetarian Food Guide Pyramid
Special attention to vitamins D, B12, and
riboflavin (B2); minerals zinc and iron

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protein-Energy Malnutrition
Protein-energy malnutrition: caused by
inadequate protein and energy intake
Common forms:
Marasmus
Kwashiorkor

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Marasmus
Grossly inadequate energy and nutrient intake
Consequences of marasmus:

Wasting and weakening of muscles (heart)

Stunted brain development and learning
Depressed metabolism
Stunted physical growth
Deterioration of the intestinal lining (anemia)
Severely weakened immune system
Fluid and electrolyte imbalances
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Kwashiorkor
Disease resulting from low protein intake
Kwashiorkor symptoms include:

Some weight loss and muscle wasting

Retarded growth and development
Edema resulting in distention of the belly
Fatty degeneration of the liver
Loss of appetite, sadness, irritability, apathy
Skin problems and hair loss

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Genetic Disorders
Numerous disorders are caused by defective
DNA
Genetic disorders include:
Phenylketonuria
Sickle cell anemia
Cystic fibrosis

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.