Metals, minerals, mining and (some of)

its problems

A short series of lectures prepared for the London Mining Network

24 April 2009

by
Mark Muller
mmuller.earthsci@gmail.com

Acknowledgments:
I acknowledge gratefully the extent to which I have leant on the work
contained in several good text books:
Mine Wastes: Characterization, Treatment and Environmental
Impacts, 2nd Edition, by Bernd Lottermoser, 2007. Springer, Berlin
Heidelberg.
Mining and the Environment: From Ore to Metal, by Karlheinz Spitz
and John Trudinger, 2009. CRC Press, Leiden.
Introductory Mining Engineering, 2nd Edition, Howard Hartman and
Jan Mutmansky, 2002. Wiley, New Jersey.

Thank you also to CAFOD, London, for suggesting and organising the
workshop, and for covering my travelling expenses to London for the
event.

Outline of lectures:
Topic 1: Ore mineralogy and orebodies
Topic 2: Mining
Topic 3: Ore processing and metal recovery
Topic 4: Mine wastes
Topic 5: Environmental and social concerns

Specific mining problems examined in some detail:

Surface subsidence above underground longwall-mining panels
Rockbursts in deep underground mines
Tailings dam failures
Riverine and submarine tailings disposal
Cyanidation wastes and their attenuation (destruction)
Radioactive uranium wastes and water contamination
Sulphide wastes and acidification of waters

Topic 1: Ore mineralogy and orebodies

From a series of 5 lectures on

Metals, minerals, mining and (some of) its problems
prepared for London Mining Network
by
Mark Muller
mmuller.earthsci@gmail.com
24 April 2009

Outline of Topic 1:
Elements and metals
Types of minerals
Radioactive elements, minerals and radioactive decay
The process of oxidation
Acids and alkalis
Types of rocks and orebodies
Examples of typical orebodies

Elements minerals rocks (orebodies)

Elements are the building blocks of minerals
e.g., iron, zinc, sulphur and oxygen are elements.

Minerals are the building blocks of rocks

e.g., silicon-oxide (silica), iron-sulphide (pyrite) and tin-oxide
(cassiterite) are minerals.

METALLURGICAL
EXTRACTION
Recover target metal from
mineral concentrate

LIBERATION
PROCESSING
Liberate target minerals from
rock and concentrate them

Metal-bearing minerals are the target of mining.

Non metal-bearing minerals are referred to as gangue minerals.

Rocks are aggregates of minerals

e.g., granite, limestone, sandstone and gneiss are rocks.
Orebodies are rocks containing an enhanced percentage of
metal-bearing minerals, high enough to be economic (i.e.,
mined at a profit), and a lower percentage of gangue minerals.

MINING
Recover orebody from host
rock

Metals enrichment factors

Metals require significant enrichment

above their normal background levels in
the Earths crust to form a mineable
orebody.
Minerals are enriched to form orebodies
through a wide range of different
geological processes.
The enrichment factor required to make a
mine viable (i.e., profitable within todays
economic framework for minerals exploitation)

will vary from time to time, depending on

commodity prices, and the ease of
extraction of both the orebody from the
ground and the target metal from the
orebody.

Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.

World production of non-fuel mineral commodities in 1999.

Table from Lottermoser, 2007.

Elements:
Elements are made up of atoms which consist of protons, neutrons and
electrons. The number of protons (the atomic number) defines the
element.
For example oxygen (O) has 8 protons, Uranium (U) has 92 protons.
In a well ordered fashion through the periodic table, the number of
protons, neutrons and electrons increases, and the atoms (elements)
become heavier and larger in diameter.
Electron
Negative electrical charge
No mass

1 valence
electron in the
outer electron
shell

+
Neutron
No charge

+
Proton
Positive electrical charge

Hydrogen (H) atom

Lithium (Li) atom

3 Electrons
3 Protons
4 Neutrons

Periodic Table of Elements

Metalloids
Rare Earth
Elements

Some definitions regarding metals:

Metals are elements that are malleable, ductile, and conduct heat and
electricity well gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), platinum (Pt) etc.

Metalloids (or semi-metals) are elements with both metallic and

non-metallic properties, and have a lower ability to conduct heat and
electricity boron (B), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi),
selenium (Se) and tellurium (Te).

Heavy metals are those metals with a density greater than 6 g/cm3:
Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, Sn, Ni, Co, Mo, W, Hg, Cd, In, Tl. (Gold ~18 g/cm3)

Base metals are those metals that tend to be used in industry by

themselves, rather than alloyed with other metals Cu, Pb, Zn, Sn.

Making minerals from elements:

The sharing of electrons by different elements forms the basis of the
creation of compounds.
Minerals are compounds combinations of elements held together by
the forces established through the sharing of electrons.
Gold (Au) is stable and unreactive, and forms no compounds in nature.
An ion is an atom or molecule (compound) which has lost or gained one or
more electrons, giving it a positive or negative electrical charge.
Anions a negative charge (e.g., CN-).
Cations have a positive charge (e.g., H+)
H+ cation lies at the root of acid mine drainage
CN- (cyanide) anion is the basis of cyanidation waste problems.

Minerals:
A mineral is often crystalline in form.
The crystal lattices of minerals hold metal elements very tightly.
Aggressive chemical means, or large amounts of thermal or electrical
energy, are therefore required to liberate the metals from their host
minerals

The mineral pyrite

(FeS2) in its
characteristic
cubic crystal form

Model of the crystal

form of the titanium
oxide mineral rutile
(TiO2)

O atoms

Ti atoms

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pyrite_foolsgold.jpg

http://www.hgs-model.com/gallery/index.html

Classes or groups of minerals:

Significant metal-hosting minerals
- Native metals: pure metals or metal alloys
- Oxides: compounds with oxygen (O)
- Sulphides: compounds with sulphur (S)
Minerals primarily of industrial interest
- Silicates: Si-O
- Carbonates: CO3
- Halides (salts): Cl
Minerals hosting interesting metals (and with some industrial interest)
- Sulphates: SO4
- Phosphates: PO4
- Borates: B-O

Metal-bearing minerals:
Native metals
A native metal is a metal found in its metallic form in nature.
Only gold, silver, copper and platinum metals occur in nature in
exploitable amounts.
All mined gold is native metal, alloyed with up to 15% silver.
There are no common naturally occurring gold oxides, sulphides or other
minerals.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil
e:SilverUSGOV.jpg

Native silver (Ag). Source: US

Government.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File
:Native_Copper_Macro_Digon3.jpg

Native copper (Cu) about 4 cm in

size. Credit: Jonathan Zander.

Prospector B. O. Holtermann
with 286 kg solid gold nugget
found in 1872 at Hill End,
NSW, Australia. From Spitz
and Trudinger, 2009.

Metal-bearing minerals:
Metal oxides
Are simple compounds with the element oxygen (O). Metals are relatively
easily extracted from oxide minerals. Examples include:
Hematite: Fe2O3
Rutile: TiO2

Ilmenite: FeTiO3
Cassiterite: SnO2

Coltan (Columbite-Tantalite): (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cassiter
iteUSGOV.jpg

Cassiterite (SnO2). Source: US

Government.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hematite
.jpg

Hematite (FeO2)
kidney ore from
Michigan. The
yellow is the
reflection of a lamp
used for lighting.

Metal-bearing minerals:
Metal sulphides
Are simple compounds with the element sulphur (S). Metals are less
easily extracted from sulphide minerals, and are often oxidised first, as the
initial stage in metal recovery. Examples include:
Chalcocite: Cu2S

Sphalerite: ZnS

Galena: PbS

Pyrite: FeS2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F
ile:Cinnabar09.jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wik
i/File:Sphalerite4.jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wik
i/File:GalenaKansas.jpg

Cinnabar (HgS), Buckskin Mnts.,

Nevada. Credit: Chris Ralph.

Aggregate of Sphalerite (ZnS)

crystals. Credit: Andreas Frh

Galena (PbS) crystal.

Rock-forming minerals:
Silicates
Are compounds with silicon-oxygen (Si-O) and occur in many different
crystal forms.
Silicates all contain metallic elements, but it is currently not possible
to extract the metals from them, so interest in silicate minerals lies in their
industrial uses. Examples include:
Quartz (silica): SiO2

Beryl (emerald): Be3Al2(SiO3)6

Muscovite (mica): KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2

Beryl Be3Al2(SiO3)6
variety emerald

http://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/File:Emerald_roug
h_300x422.jpg

Crocidolite (blue) asbestos

Na2Fe2+3Fe3+2Si8O22(OH)2
from the now closed mine at
Wittenoom, Western Australia.
Credit: John Hayman.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Blue_asbestos.jpg

Other minerals of interest:

Sulphates
Formed with sulphur-oxygen (SO4).
Gypsum: CaSO42H2O - used in cement
Borates
Formed with boron-oxygen (B-O) and are exploited for the metalloid
element boron (B).
Borax: Na2B4O710H2O
Ulexite: NaCaB5O98H2O
Carbonates
Formed with carbon-oxygen (CO3). They are easily dissolved in acids,
and are able to neutralise acids.
Calcite, limestone: CaCO3 - limestone is the main component of cement

Other minerals of interest:

Phosphates
Formed with phosphorous-oxygen (PO4).
Phosphates exploited for Rare Earth Element (REE) metals and thorium (Th):
Monazite: (Ce,La,Pr,Nd,Th,Y)PO4
Apatite: (Ca,Sr,Ce,La)5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)
Phosphates are also mined to
obtain phosphorus for use in
agriculture and industry:

- radioactive, due to thorium,

and the most common ore of
thorium
- a non-radioactive source of
REEs
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apatite09.jpg

Phosphate: H3PO4
Apatite, variety fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F
from Mexico. Credit: Chris Ralph

Other minerals of interest:

Halides (salts)
Salts are evaporite minerals formed with chlorine (Cl).
They are easily dissolved in water and are often mined in-situ using
solution-mining methods.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File
:Mineral_Silvina_GDFL105.jpg

Sylvite (KCl). Credit: Luis Miguel Bugallo

Snchez.

Halite (rock salt): NaCl

Sylvite: KCl - fertiliser industry

Oxidation:
Oxidation is a reaction with oxygen that results in the breakdown of
minerals.
Metallic sulphide minerals (e.g., pyrite) oxidise in the presence of
water and oxygen to:

produce acids and

release dissolved metals into water.

Note:
Oxidised sulphide minerals are not the same as primary oxide
minerals.
A primary oxide of iron is
Oxidation of pyrite (FeS2) produces

hematite: Fe2O3
iron-hydroxide: Fe(OH)3

ACID

Acids and alkalis and pH:

Anything that reacts with an acid is called an alkali.

pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

Acidic pH
Neutral pH
Alkaline pH

less than 7
equal to 7
greater than 7

(lemon juice = 2, battery acid = 0)

(distilled water)
(household ammonia = 11)

They neutralise each other through the following reaction:

H+
Acid

OH-

H 2O

Alkali

Water
ALKALI

Figure from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PH_scale.png. Credit Stephen Lower

Rocks and orebodies:

Rocks and orebodies are aggregates of different minerals.
Orebodies have high concentrations of metal bearing minerals and are
hosted in barren country rock.
Mined country rock is referred to as gangue or waste.

Volcanic, sedimentary and metamorphic processes form rocks and

minerals.
Hydrothermal fluids associated with volcanic and metamorphic processes
contain high concentrations of dissolved metals and also form ores

Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are formed when
molten magma cools and
crystallises either on the surface
or at depth in the crust.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:200
5.11.08_005_Granito_Orbicular_Caldera
_Chile.jpg

Examples: granite, basalt,

kimberlite.

An outcrop of orbicular granite.

Locality: Orbicular Granite Nature
Sanctuary, near Caldera, Chile.
Photo credit: Herman Luyken

Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by
deposition of
clastic sediments derived from
the erosion of other rocks (mud,
gravel, sands)
organic matter
chemical precipitates (evaporites)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cong
lomeratereyes.jpg

followed by burial and compaction

of the material.

Examples: Sandstone,
conglomerate, limestone, coal,
potash.
An outcrop of conglomerate
overlying sandstone.
Locality: Point Reyes, Marin County,
California.

Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed
when any rock type is subjected to
high temperature and pressure.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cong
lomeratereyes.jpg

Examples: marble (from limestone

precursor), quartzite (from
sandstone precursor), gneiss (from
granite precursor).

Banded gneiss, formed by high

pressure compression that aligned
minerals, forming a layered fabric.
Locality: Skagit Gneiss Complex, North
Cascades Range, Washington, USA.
Credit: US Geological Survey

Ore genesis:
Enrichment of metal-bearing minerals occurs in specific geo-tectonic
settings in response to specific geological processes.
These geological settings and processes produce different types of
orebodies, with classic mineral assemblages/combinations, e.g.:
Massive iron-ore
Placer (alluvial) gold
Massive copper sulphide + gold
Massive lead-zinc sulphide
Layered igneous intrusions: platinum, palladium, chromium
Nickel laterite and bauxite
Diamondiferous kimberlite
Alluvial diamond
Mineral sands
Coal

Massive sulphide lead-zinc deposit, Black Angel Mine, Greenland (1973 1991)
Black Angel Mine exploited a
massive sulphide lead-zinc
deposit (sphalerite, galena and
pyrite) hosted in marble and
metasediments. Ore-grades of
12.5% Zn, 4.1% Pb, 30 ppm
(g/ton) Ag were reported (Asmund
et al., 1994). The massive sulphide
orebodies are developed subparallel to metamorphic banding in
the country rock, and were mined
using a room-and-pillar method.

SIMPLIFIED CROSS-SECTION THROUGH BLACK ANGEL MINE

Massive
sulphide
orebodies

600 m

Approx. 9 km

http://www.angusandross.com/AR-NEW/pages/proj-black-angel-phase1.htm

3m

Cable car
access point
into mine
Massive sulphide ore (dark band) showing
in a support pillar left remnant after
cessation of mining in 1990. (From: Black
Angel News, 2005).

http://www.angusandross.com/AR-NEW/pages/proj-black-angel.htm

Kimberlite diamond deposits

Kimberlite volcanic pipes are the hosts of
primary diamond deposits.
Both the volcanic magmas and the contained
diamonds originate at depths of about 170 to
200 km below the Earths surface, and are
brought to surface during a very rapid and
explosive eruption events.

Diagram showing
the structure of a
kimberlite volcanic
pipe.

Kimberlite pipes are subsequently eroded

through geologic time, exposing deeper parts
of the pipe, and developing secondary
deposits of alluvial diamonds that are found
in river beds, flood plains, and offshore as
marine deposits.
Diamond grades in kimberlite pipes are highly
variable, and some pipes are completely
barren (for good geological reasons). Some
reported grades lie in the range 0.28 7.5
carats per ton (Roberts, 2007, pg 68).
Secondary alluvial diamond deposits may be
significantly enriched in diamonds as the
process of erosion concentrates heavy,
resistant minerals.

Figure from McCarthy and Rubidge (2005)

Udachnaya Pipe,
Sakha Republic,
Russia, in the
summer of 2004.
Credit: Alexander
Stepanov.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Udachnaya_pipe.JPG

Palaeo-placer gold deposit - Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa

The Witwatersrand Basin in an ancient (2.8
billion years old) palaeo-placer deposit,
consisting of multiple stacked and alternating
shale, sandstone and thin conglomerate
sedimentary bands.
The gold mineralisation is found in the
conglomerate bands (called reefs), typically
between 5 to 100 cm thick. The gold was
either introduced at the time the sediments
were deposited, or was introduced later by
gold-bearing hydrothermal fluids (or both).

Geological cross-section through the Welkom

Goldfield. Figure from McCarthy, 2006

The sedimentary basin subsequently suffered

extensive deformation, producing folds and
faults that disrupt the deposit. Faults impact
significantly on safe (and efficient) mining.
Underground mines operate up to a maximum
depth of about 4,000 meters. Mineable
grades in a deep goldmine operations are
of the order of 10 20 g/ton.
Many of the reefs contain accessory
uranium, which is processed as by-product on
several mines.

Carbon
Pyrite
Gold
Quartz

1 cm
Gold and carbon nodules with buckshot pyrite
in conglomerate reef from the Witwatersrand
Basin, South Africa. Figure from McCarthy and
Rubidge, 2005. Photo credit: Goldfields.

Nickel laterite deposits

Nickel laterite ore deposits are the surficial, deeply
weathered residues formed on top of ultramafic rocks
that are exposed at surface in tropical climates. They
are found widely in New Caledonia, Cuba, Australia,
Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, and Indonesia,
and are estimated to comprise about 73% of the
world continental nickel resource.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:River_Sout
h_New_Caledonia.JPG.JPG

Limonite zone

Two kinds of lateritic nickel ore can be distinguished:

limonite (oxide) types and saprolite (silicate) types.
Deep downward
penetration of water
producing weathering

Near surface upward

evaporation of water
precipitates Fe, Ni oxide

LIMONITE
ZONE
1- 2% Ni
SAPROLITE
ZONE
1.5 - 2.5% Ni

Goethite
(hydrated oxide)
OREBODY

Mg RICH ULTRAMAFIC
ROCK
0.3% Ni

A Creek in southern New-Caledonia.

Red colours reveal the richness of the
ground in iron oxides, and nickel.

Serpentine
(hydrated silicate)
Olivine and
pyroxene
(silicate minerals)

The process of oxidation and

weathering depletes the original
mafic rock of Mg and Si, and
concentrates Fe and Ni in the
weathered zone.

Radioactive elements:
In radioactive elements, the configuration of the nucleus is unstable, and
breaks down, emitting radioactive decay products:
alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
Isotopes of an element have nuclei with the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.
Some isotopes are stable, and others subject to radioactive decay.
Alpha radiation is readily
stopped by a sheet of paper.
Helium nucleus

Electron
Energy
(electromagnetic
radiation)

Beta radiation is halted by an

aluminium plate.
Gamma radiation is eventually
absorbed as it penetrates a
dense material. Lead, being
dense, is good at absorbing
gamma radiation several
centimeters of thickness is
needed.

Modified from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_particle

Radioactive elements:
A parent nuclide is an element that undergoes radioactive decay, producing
a daughter nuclide, that may be a different element.
Parent
U-238
92 protons
146 neutrons

decays to form

Daughter
Th-234

by releasing an alpha particle.

90 protons
144 neutrons

The daughter nuclide may itself be stable or unstable (i.e., radioactive).

The half-life is the time taken for half the radionuclide's atoms to
decay. Half-lives vary between more than 1019 years, for very nearly
stable nuclides, to 1023 seconds for highly unstable ones.

Uranium radioactive decay series and half-lives

Series starts with

radioactive isotope

Uranium-238
(92 protons, 146 neutrons)

Series ends with

stable lead isotope

The SI unit of radioactive decay is the Becquerel (Bq).

One Bq is defined as one decay per second.

Table from Lottermoser, 2007, and references therein.

Radioactive uranium minerals:

The main primary ore in uranium deposits is
Uraninite: UO2

Other important primary uranium ore minerals are:

Brannerite: (U,Ca,Y,Ce)(Ti,Fe)2O6
Coffinite: USiO4nH2O
Pitchblende

a mixed uranium, iron, titanium

oxide mineral.
a hydrated uranium silicate

an amorphous, poorly crystalline mix of uranium oxides

often including triuranium octoxide: U3O8.

Daughter nuclides are trapped in uranium minerals or escape

At the time the

mineral is
formed in orebody

1 Billion years later

Uraninite: UO2

Uraninite: UO2

100% uranium

75% uranium has decayed

to daughter radionuclides.
Some daughters will remain
trapped in the mineral, or they
migrate elsewhere in the orebody
to form other minerals

Radioactive minerals:
The primary uranium minerals weather and break down very easily when
exposed to water and oxygen, to produce numerous secondary
(oxidised) minerals, for example carnotite and autunite, which are
often mined, but in significantly lower quantities that uraninite.
Uranium is also found in small amounts in other minerals:
allanite, xenotime, monazite, zircon, apatite and sphene.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pichblende.jpg

Uraninite (pitchblende) UO2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Carnotite-BYU.jpg

Carnotite
K2(UO2)2(VO4)23H2O,
An important secondary
uranium-vanadium
bearing mineral, from
Happy Jack Mine, White
Canyon District, Utah,
USA. Credit: Andrew
Silver.