OHMS LAW FOR DC

THE TEMPERATURE REMAINING CONSTANT THE

CURRENT FLOWING IN THE CIRCUIT IS DIRECTLY
PROPORTIONAL TO THE APPLIED VOLTAGE AND
INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO ITS RESISTANCE.
V=IXR
I = V/R
R = V/I

NUMERICALS BASED ON OHMS LAW

IF

IF

V=

9 VOLT AND

I=

V/R = 9/10 = 0.9 AMPERE

I = 10 AMPERE
R = I/V

IF

V = 10 VOLT

= 10 / 10 = 1 OHM

I = 10 AMPERE
V=I*R

R = 10 OHMS

R = 5 OHMS

= 10 * 5 = 50 VOLT

KIRCHHOFFS FIRST LAW

THE TOTAL CURRENT ENTERING THE CUIRCUIT
(FLOWING TOWARDS) IS EQUAL TO THE TOTAL CURRENT
LEAVING THE CUIRCUIT.
KIRCHHOFFS SECOND LAW
THE TOTAL VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS THE RESISTANCE OF
A CLOSED CIRCUIT IS EQUAL TO THE TOTAL VOLTAGE
APPLIED TO THE CIRCUIT.

DIAGRAM KIRCHHOFFS FIRST LAW

DIAGRAM KIRCHHOFFS SECOND LAW

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
IT IS THE AMOUNT OF THE WORK DONE IN
BRINGING ONE UNIT OF POSITIVE CHARGE
FROM ONE POINT TO ANOTHER IN THE
ELECTRIC FIELD.
THE VOLTAGE RATING IS MEASURE OF
PRESSURE.
THE AMOUNT OF PUSH BEHIND ELECTRIC
CURRENT (EMF).
UNIT IS VOLT

AMPERE
THE RATE OF FLOW OF ELECTRON EQUAL TO
ONE COULOMB PER SECOND.
AMPERE IS UNIT OF CURRENT.

ELECTRIC POWER (WATT)

WHENEVER ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOWS WORK IS DONE
IN MOVING THE ELECTRONS THROUGH THE
CONDUCTOR.
THE RATE AT WHICH THE WORK IS DONE IS CALLED
POWER. THE BASIC UNIT OF POWER IS WATT.
P=VXI
OR
P=IXIXR
1000 WATT = 1 KILO WATT ( ONE UNIT OF ELECTRICITY IS
1 KW HR )
ONE HORSE POWER = 746 WATTS. ( ENERGY REQUIRED
TO LIFT 33000 POUNDS OF WEIGHT TO 1 FEET OF HEIGHT
AND KEEP IT THERE FOR 1 MIN.

WATT and DECIBEL

1dB
=
10 Log WATT
CONVERTING 100 WATT INTO DECIBELS
100 WATT

= (10 log 100) dB

= 10 *2
= 20 dB

100 WATT = 20 dB, 1000 WATT = 30 dB

JOULE: UNIT OF WORK. ENERGY SPENT

IN ONE SECOND BY AN AMPERE FLOWING
THROUGH ONE OHM.
ENERGY:
THE STRENGTH OR
CAPACITY REQUIRED TO DO WORK.
POWER MEASURED OVER A TIME (KW HR)

RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE IS THE OPPOSITION OFFERED BY A
MATERIAL TO THE FLOW OF ELECTRON.
IN A CIRCUIT RESISTANCE IS USED TO REGULATE
FLOW OF CURRENT AND ALSO TO GENERATE
HEAT AND LIGHT AT CERTAIN OCCASION
THE UNIT OF RESISTANCE IS OHMS.
1000 OHMS = 1 KILO OHMS
1 AMPERE = 1000 MILI AMPERE
1 MICRO VOLT = 1/1 000 000 VOLT

RESISTANCE COLOUR CODE AND CIRCUIT SYMBOL

RESISTANCE COLOUR CODE AND CIRCUIT SYMBOL

RESISTANCE COLOUR CODE

B
B
R
O
Y
G
B
V
G
W

BLACK
BROWN
RED
ORANGE
YELLOW
GREEN
BLUE
VOILET
GREY
WHITE

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

B B ROY GREAT BRITAIN VERY GOOD WIFE

FIRST AND SECOND COLOUR ARE DIGITS.
THIRD COLOUR IS NO OF ZEROS
FOURTH COLOUR IS TOLERANCE

RESISTANCE COLOUR CODE

B
R
Y
B
G

BLACK
RED
YELLOW
BLUE
GREY

=
=
=
=
=

0
2
4
6
8

B
O
G
V
W

BROWN
ORANGE
GREEN
VOILET
WHITE

=
=
=
=
=

1
3
5
7
9

FOURTH COLOUR IS TOLERANCE

GOLD = 5%
SILVER = 10%
NO COLOUR = 20%
31 OHMS= FIRST COLOUR WILL BE ORANGE
SECOND COLOUR WILL BE BROWN
THIRD COLOUR WILL BE BLACK

RESISTANCDE IN SERIES
R = R1 + R2 + R3
RESISTANCDE IN PARALLEL
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

NUMERICALS : RESISTANCE
IF

R1 = 20 OHMS
R2 = 30 OHMS
R1 = 40 OHMS

IN SERIES
R = R1 + R2 + R3
R = 20 + 30 + 40 = 90 OHMS
IN PARALLEL
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
1/R = 1/20 + 1/30 + 1/40 = 6/120 + 4/120 + 3/120 =
13/120
R = 120/13 = 9 OHMS APPROX

An RLC circuit (also known as a resonant circuit, tuned circuit, or LCR circuit) is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor (C), connected in
series or in parallel. This configuration forms a harmonic oscillator.
Tuned circuits have many applications particularly for oscillating circuits and in radio and communication engineering. They can be used to select a certain narrow range of
frequencies from the total spectrum of ambient radio waves. For example, AM/FM radios typically use an RLC circuit to tune a radio frequency. Most commonly a variable capacitor
allows you to change the value of C in the circuit and tune to stations on different frequencies. Other practical designs vary the inductance L to adjust tuning.
An RLC circuit is called a second-order circuit as any voltage or current in the circuit can be described by a second-order differential equation for circuit analysis.

Series RLC with Thvenin power source

In this circuit, the three components are all in series with the voltage source.

Series RLC Circuit notations:

V - the voltage of the power source (measured in volts V)
I - the current in the circuit (measured in amperes A)
R - the resistance of the resistor (measured in ohms = V/A);
L - the inductance of the inductor (measured in henrys = H = Vs/A)
C - the capacitance of the capacitor (measured in farads = F = C/V =
As/V)
q - the charge across the capacitor (measured in coulombs C)
Given the parameters v, R, L, and C, the solution for the charge, q, can be found using Kirchhoff's voltage law. (KVL)
gives
For a time-changing voltage v(t), this becomes

Parallel RLC circuit

Parallel RLC Circuit notations:
V - the voltage of the power source (measured in volts V)
I - the current in the circuit (measured in amperes A)
R - the resistance of the resistor (measured in ohms = V/A);
L - the inductance of the inductor (measured in henrys = H = Vs/A)
C - the capacitance of the capacitor (measured in farads = F = C/V =
As/V)

The complex admittance of this circuit is given by adding up the admittances of the components:

OHMS LAW FOR AC

IMPEDENANCE DESCRIBES A MEASURE OF
OPPOSITION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT.
IT IS COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE, CAPACITIVE
REACTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
IT CAN BE CALCULATED BY OHMS LAW

I = E/Z

OHMS LAW FOR AC

RESONANCE IS A SPECIAL FREQUENCY IN AC CIRCUIT
DETERMINED BY VALUE OF RESISTANCE , CAPACITANCE
AND INDUCTANCE.
IN SERIES RESONANCE IS GIVEN BY MINIMUM
IMPEDENCE AND ZERO PHASE.
IN PARALLEL ROSONANCE IN MAXIMUM, WHEN
INDUCTANCE AND CAPCITANCE ARE EQUAL AND 180 OUT
OF PHASE.
IT CAN BE CALCULATED BY

F = PI UNDERROOT LC

IMPEDENANCE DESCRIBES A MEASURE OF

OPPOSITION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT
IT IS COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE,
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE AND INDUCTIVE
REACTANCE
IT CAN BE CALCULATED BY OHMS LAW
I = E/Z

FUSE
IT IS CURRENT RATED.
IT IS INSERTED BETWEEN ELECTRICAL SUPPLY AND
EQUIPMENT TO PROTECT IT FROM GETTING DAMAGED.
IF CURRENT FLOW IN THE CIRCUITS EXCEEDS THE
RATING. IF EQUIPMENT NEEDS 500 M A FUSE ( A) IS
INSERTED.
CIRCUITS BREAKER ARE ALSO USED AS PROTECTION
FROM OVER LOADS. IF CURRENT INCREASES, IT JUMPS
AND BREAKS THE CIRCUIT.

CELL

CELL IS A DEVICE WHICH CONVERTS CHEMICAL

ENERGY INTO DIRECT CURRENT

COMBINATION OF CELLS IS KNOWN AS BATTERY

CELLS CAN BE CONNECTED IN SERIES OR

PARELLEL

SERIES : VOLTAGE ADDS UP CURRENT

REMAINS THE SAME

PARALLEL : CURRENT ADDS UP VOLTAGE

REMAINS THE SAME

RATING OF A BATTERY

BATTERIES ARE RATED IN AMPERE HOUR (AH)

5 AH BATTERY CAN GIVE CURRENT OF 1 AMPERE

FOR 5 HOURS OR 5 AMPERE FOR 1 HOUR. BUT IT
CAN NOT GIVE 10 AMPERE FOR HALF HOUR DUE
TO BATTERY INTERNAL RESISTANCE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM CELL

TYPES OF CELLS : PRIMARY

DRY CELLS ARE KNOWN AS PRIMARY CELLS

VOLTAGE IS 1.5 VOLT (ONE TIME USE TYPE)

CARBON ROD IS +VE

CONTAINER IS ZINC VE

AMMONIUM CHLORIDE IS ELECTROLYTE

ADVANTAGE : CHEAP TO MASS PRODUCE

DISADVANTAGE : CAN NOT BE RECHARGED AND IF

LEFT UNUSED FOR SOME TIME, IT DETORIATES

CELLS : SECONDARY CELL

SECONDARY CELLS CAN BE RE CAHRGED

TWO TYPES OF SECONDARY CELLS ARE

LEAD ACID

NICKEL CADMIUM

SECONDARY CELLS : LEAD ACID

VOLTAGE IS 2 VOLT

LEAD PEROXIDE IS +VE

LEAD OXIDE IS VE

DILUTED SULPHURIC ACID IS ELECTROLYTE

SPECIFIC GRAVITY WHEN CHARGED 1.25 TO 1.35

SPECIFIC GRAVITY WHEN DISCHARGED FALLS TO

1.17.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY IS MEASURED BY HYDROMETER

TOPPING UP IS DONE BY DISTILLED WATER

LEAD ACID : ADVANTAGE / DISADVANTAGE

ADVANTAGE

CAN BE RECAHRGED

DISADVATAGE

BATTERIES DISCHARGES IF KEPT

UNUSED FOR A

LONG TIME

CHARGING HAS TO BE CAREFULLY MONITORED BY

CHECKING VOLTAGE AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

OVERCHARGING IS A PROBLEM

BOTH VOLTAGE AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY IS CHECKED

FOR DETERMINING IF A BATTERY IS DISCHARGED.

SECONDARY CELLS : NICKEL CADMIUM

VOLTAGE IS 1.2 VOLT UNDER VARYING

LOAD

NICKEL HYDROXIDE IS +VE

CADMIUM IS VE

POTTASIUM HYDROXIDE (KOH) IS

ELECTROLYTE

NICKEL CADMIUM : ADVANTAGE / DISADVANTAGE

ADVANTAGE
RUGGED, NON SPILLABLE
NOT DAMAGED IF UNUSED FOR A LONG TIME
OVER CHARGING AND DISCHARGING DOES NOT
AFFECT MUCH

USED IN AIRCRAFT

INVERTOR

AN INVERTOR IS AN ELECTRONIC DIVICE TO

CONVERT DC TO AC

BATTERY POWER IS USED FOR EMERGENCY

SUPPLY

BATTERY OUTPUT WHICH IS DC IS CONNECTED

TO INVERTOR. THE OUTPUT IS FED TO

EQUIPMENTS

INDUCTOR

A COIL OF WIRE USED TO SUPPLY INDUCTANCE

IN THE CIRCUIT.

VOLTAGE WHICH IS GENERATED IS CALLED

INDUCED EMF

INDUCED EMF OPPOSES ANY CHANGE IN THE

CURRENT WHICH INDUCED IT.

UNIT IS HENRIES AND SYMBOL IS L

SERIES : L = L1 + L2 + L3

PARALLEL : L = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3

INDUCTOR
INDUCTOR IN SERIES
L = L1 + L2 + L3
RESISTANCDE IN PARALLEL
1/L = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3

NUMERICALS : INDUCTOR
IF

L1 = 20 HENERIES
L2 = 30 HENERIES
L1 = 40 HENERIES

IN SERIES
L = L1 + L2 + L3
L = 20 + 30 + 40 = 90 HENERIES
IN PARALLEL
1/L = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3
1/L = 1/20 + 1/30 + 1/40 = 6/120 + 4/120 + 3/120 =
13/120
L = 120/13 = 9 HENERIES APPROX

CAPACITOR

TWO CONDUCTING PLATE SEPERATED BY

INSULATING MATERIAL (DIEELECTRIC)

CONSTITUTES

A CAPACITOR

AC WILL FLOW NOT DC

UNIT IS FARAD

SERIES : 1/ C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3

PARALLEL : C = C1 + C2 + C3

IN VARIABLE AIR CAPACITOR AIR IS DIELECTRIC

F = 1 / 2R UNDER ROOT LC

NUMERICALS : CAPACITOR
IF

C1 = 20 FARAD
C2 = 30 FARAD
C1 = 40 FARAD

IN SERIES
1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
1/L = 1/20 + 1/30 + 1/40 = 6/120 + 4/120 + 3/120= 13/120
L = 120/13 = 9 FARAD APPROX
IN PARALLEL
C = C1 + C2 + C3
L = 20 + 30 + 40 = 90 FARAD

DIODE

TRIODE
A triode is an electronic amplification device having
three active electrodes. The term most commonly
applies to a vacuum tube (or valve in British English)
with three elements: the filament or cathode, the
grid, and the plate or anode. The triode vacuum tube
is the first electronic amplification device.

TRANSISTOR : PNP & NPN

Atransistorisasemiconductordeviceusedtoamplifyand
switchelectronicsignals.Itismadeofasolidpiece
ofsemiconductormaterial,withatleastthreeterminalsfor
connectiontoanexternalcircuit.Avoltageorcurrentappliedtoone
pairofthetransistor'sterminalschangesthecurrentflowing
throughanotherpairofterminals.Becausethecontrolled
(output)powercanbemuchmorethanthecontrolling(input)
power,thetransistorprovidesamplificationofasignal.Some
transistorsarepackagedindividuallybutmanymorearefound
embeddedinintegratedcircuits.
Thetransistoristhefundamentalbuildingblockof
modernelectronicdevices,anditspresenceisubiquitousinmodern
electronicsystems.

PNP

NPN

CATHODE RAY TUBE

TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER IS A DEVICE USED IN AN AC

CIRCUIT EITHER IN TO STEP UP OR STEP DOWN THE

VOLTAGE

FOR CHANGING VOLTAGE IN DC CIRCUIT CELLS

HAVE TO BE CONNECTED IN SERIES AND IN
PARALLEL

DUE TO THE EASE WITH WHICH AC VOLTAGE CAN

BE CHANGED, AC IS BEING ALL OVER THE WORLD

50 HZ IS USED IN DOMESTIC SUPPLY TO PREVENT

LINE LOSSES AND 400 HZ IS USED IN AIRCRAFT

TO REDUCE THE SIZE OF TRANSFORMER /CHOKES

GENERATORS / MOTORS

GENERATOR IS A MACHINE WHICH CONVERTS

MECHANICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY

IS

CALLED GENERATOR

A GENERATOR DESIGNED TO PRODUCE AC IS

CALLED AC GENERATOR OR ALTERNATOR

A GENERATOR DESIGNED TO PRODUCE DC IS

CALLED AC GENERATOR

COMMUTATOR IS USED TO CONVERT AC TO DC

MOTOR IS A MACHINE WHICH CONVERTS

ELECTRICAL ENERGY INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY

CALLED GENERATOR

IS