The Atmosphere & Air Pollution

APES
TEXTBOOK REFERENCE CHS. 17 & 18

Notes Outline
The Atmosphere & Climate

Structure & Function

Urban Air Pollution

Photochemical & Industrial Smog

Acid Deposition

How, Consequences & Solutions

Indoor Air Pollution

Types & Consequences

Effects of Air Pollution

Human Health, Plants, Animals, Aquatic Life,

Property

Prevention of Air Pollution

Laws, Technology

Global Warming

Causes & Solutions

Ozone Layer

Causes & Solutions

The Atmosphere

The Ozone Layer

A natural

layer of ozone
gas (O3) in
stratosphere
Filters 95%
UV rays

Wind Patterns

Climate

Climate

Historical Climate Change Patterns

900,000 years of temperature glacial data
Ice Ages last ~ 100,000 years, interglacial periods

~10,000-25,000

Climate & Carbon Dioxide

160,000 years of ice

core data

Trapped ice

Last ice age was

~10,000 years BP

Air Pollution
Primary Pollutants:

1+ chemicals in

atmosphere that cause

harm to life or materials

result of natural events

or human activities
Secondary
Pollutants: occur due
to a chemical reaction of
primary pollutants in the
atmosphere

Particulate Pollution

Major Air Pollutants

Carbon oxides

CO, CO2

Sulfur oxides

SO2 , SO3

Nitrogen oxides

NO, NO2, N2O

Volatile organic compounds

(VOCs)

Methane, propane,
chlorofluorocarbons

Suspended particulate matter

Particles (dust, lead, soot) + liquids

(PCBs, dioxins, pesticides)

Radioactive Substances

(radon-222, plutonium-239)

Photochemical oxidant

Ozone (O3), PANs, etc.

Hazardous air pollutants

Formaldehyde, etc.

Toxic Compounds

(mostly carcinogens)

Primary & Secondary Pollutants

Volcanoes, Factories, Vehicles,

Etc.
Emit
CO, CO2, SO2, NO, NO2,
methane, particulate

React

SO3, H2SO4, H2O2, O3, HNO3,

etc.

Photochemical Smog
AKA Brown Air Smog
Occurs because primary pollutants react with sun
EXAMPLE: ground level ozone formation
Emissions react with oxygen in atmosphere
A.

2NO + O2 = 2 NO2

B.

2NO2 + UV rays = NO + O

C.

O2 + O = O3 (ground level)

Industrial Smog
AKA gray smog
Formed from burning coal/oil
Mostly: SO2, H2SO4, soot/particulates
EXAMPLE:
A.

S + O2 = SO2

B.

2 SO2 + O2 = SO3

C.

SO3 + H2O = H2SO4

D.

H2SO4 + 2NH3 = (NH4)2SO4 (ammonium sulfategrayish

color)

Thermal Inversions
Cool air trapped

beneath warm air

Leads to

accumulation of
dangerous levels
of air pollution
near the ground.

How Do Inversions Occur?

Subsidence Inversions: warm air moves in at high

altitude over low lying cold air

Prevents vertical mixing and pollutant dispersal

Highly populated cities surrounded by mountains on one side,
ocean on the other, have lots of sun and light winds

Hello LA California!

Radiation Inversions: air near ground cools faster

than higher up at nightwill dissipate by noon when

morning sun warms atmosphere

Cities in a valleysurrounded by mountainsduring winter,

mountains block the sun

Acid Deposition

Acid Deposition
Sulfur Dioxide & Nitric Acid

dissolved in precipitationfalls to Earth

Transported by winds
Effects include:

direct damage to plant

foliage, bark and roots
soil acidification/death of
microorganisms
lake acidification & stress of
aquatic life
respiratory illnesses
property damage

*Lets look at fig. 17-15

Page 432

Worldwide Acid Deposition Problem

Often Occurs Downwind

Indoor Air Pollution

Inside closed homes & cars
70-98% of time spent is indoors

So this is oftentimes a bigger problem than outdoor air

pollutions

Sick Building Syndrome: inhabitants experience

dizziness, nausea, sneezing, burning eyes, chronic

fatigue, flulike symptoms

Newer buildings more often than old

The 3 Most Wanted

Chemical

Source

Effects

1. Cigarette Smoke

cigarettes

lung cancer, COPD,

asthma, heart disease

2. Formaldehyde

furniture stuffing,
paneling, particle board,
foam insulation

eye & throat irritation,

nausea, dizziness

3. Radon-222

radioactive soil/rock in
foundation of home;
water supply

lung cancer

Air Pollution & Human Health

Carbon

monoxide (CO): reacts with hemoglobin in red blood

cells & reduces ability of blood to carry oxygen
Particulates: long-term exposure contributes to lung disease &
cancer, aggravates bronchitis and asthma
Sulfur dioxide (SO ): causes constriction of airways and can
2
cause bronchitis
Nitrogen oxides (especially NO ): irritate lungs, cause
2
conditions similar to bronchitis and emphysema
Volatile organics (& toxic particulates): cause mutations,
reproductive problems, and cancer
Ozone: causes coughing, chest pain, shortness of breath, &
eye, nose, and throat irritation

Consequences on the Environment

Plants: soil nutrient depletion; increased

susceptibility to pests/disease/drought

Appalachian coniferous forests

Crops: reduces food production in US by 5-10%

annually

Ozone in California

Aquatic Ecosystems: high acidity leaches

minerals and aluminum; inhibits reproduction; fish

kills decrease NPP
Property: car paint damage; marble; stained glass

Prevention of Air Pollution

Emphasize prevention
Increase efficiency standards
Less fossils fuels-more renewables
Regulate air quality
Tax pollution
Assist developing nations with

technology advancements

Lets Look At The Numbers

Monthly commuting costs
Car (single occupant) $141
ozone-forming
Sport Utility Vehicle $153
pollutants come from
Carpool (2 persons)
$71
mobile sources (i.e., cars
Vanpool (15 seater)
and trucks)
Pollution from
Cars/Trucks SUVs
$9
Other sources include: Vehicles (per year):
CO2
15,200 lbs.
21,200
Lawn mowers
CO
420 lbs.
547
House paint
HC
55 lbs.
74
NO
50 lbs.
Charcoal lighter fluid
Particulates
2.7 lbs.
3.3

More than half of the

Technological Fixes
Technologies to

remove
particulates from
the exhaust of
electric power &
industrial plants
All produce
hazardous waste
that must be
disposed of

Legalese
The Clean Air Acts: (1970, 1977, & 1990): provide

federal air pollution regulations & require the EPA to

establish national ambient air quality standards
(NAAQS).
NAAQS

apply to seven criterion pollutants: suspended

particulate matter, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, ozone, volatile organic compounds, & lead
prevention of significant deterioration: regions with air
quality cleaner than that required by NAAQS are not allowed to
deteriorate
national emission standards for toxic air pollutants require
the EPA to regulate many toxic air pollutants.

Effectiveness of Clean Air Act

Levels

of six major air pollutants decreased by 31% between

1970-1997
Nitrogen dioxide levels have increased slightly, primarily from
automobiles;
1996 study: benefits of the Clean Air Act greatly exceed costs:

197090 $436 billion spent

Health benefits of $2.7 to $14.6 trillion

EPA estimates

that 107 million Americans live in areas that

exceed at least one outdoor air pollution standard

Clean Air Act Deficiencies

Reliance is on clean-up not

prevention
Failed to increase fuel efficiency
standards
No tough restrictions on
fine particulate matter
Municipal trash incinerators
have 30-year permits
Weak carbon dioxide
standards

EPA Cost-Benefit Analysis Study of CAA 2010

Grist: A Beacon In The

Smog

Argument Against CAA: not worth the

expense; hinders economic growth

Future of the CAA (2010)

Their petition seeks to have carbon dioxide and six other
greenhouse gases designated as criteria air pollutants
and atmospheric carbon dioxide capped at 350 parts per
million, the level leading scientists say is necessary to
avoid the worst impacts of global warming.
To date, EPA has designated six criteria or priority
pollutants: particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon
monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and lead.
Clean Air Act Proving Effective in CO2
Regulation, Lawyers Tell Their Corporate
Clients E. McGowen 6/30/10

CAA Research Citations

"David Roberts." Grist. 8 Oct. 2010. Web. 20 Mar. 2012.
<http://grist.org/politics/2010-10-07-clean-air-actcheaper-more-effective-than-industry-predicts/>.
McGowen, Elizabeth. "Clean Air Act Proving Effective in
CO2 Regulation, Lawyers Tell Their Corporate Clients." |
InsideClimate News. 30 June 2010. Web. 20 Mar. 2012.
<http://insideclimatenews.org/news/20100630/cleanair-act-proving-effective-co2-regulation-lawyers-telltheir-corporate-clients?page=2>.

Greenhouse Gases
The most abundant: water vapor & carbon dioxide
Greenhouse Gas

Source

Water Vapor

Evaporation of water

Carbon dioxide

Fossil fuels, deforestation, plant burning

Methane

Rice paddies/swamps, cattle flatulance,

gas leaks

Nitrous Oxide

Fossil fuels, fertilizers, animal waste

CFCs/HCFCs/HFCs

Air conditioners, refrigerators, plastic

foam

Vostok Carbon Dioxide Ice Core Data

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

Short wave

radiation from
sun in
Reflected back
in longer
infrared waves
gets trapped
by the
greenhouse
gases

Human Contribution to Global Warming

Global warming is a natural process. Are humans

speeding up the rate of global warming?

Many say..yes!
Carbon Dioxide Production
Invention & Use of CFCs
Methane Production
Nitrous Oxide Production

Consequences of Global Warming

Human & Natural causes increase the concentrations
of GHGs in the atmosphere which leads to..

Climate
changes
Increase in
average
global temp.

Droughts
Increased
storms
Loss of
biodiversity
Rising sea
levels

Oceans & Global Warming

Oceans act as a CO2 sink
As temperatures rise in the atmosphere, so will

oceanic temperatures
This will release CO2 back into the atmosphere

Similar to the effects of deforestation

Oceans & Global Warming

Oceans regulate global temperatures through circulation

Fresh water added to ocean from melting ice, increased rain and
snow will slow down or stop the normal circulation of sea water

Ecological Implications
Ecosystem/habitat

shifting

Higher latitudes
Higher elevations

Potential loss in

biodiversity

What is the Scientific Consensus?

Mean global

temperature rose
about 0.6 C
(1F) in past 100
years
Increase is real,

not explained by
natural variation
in solar radiation
Warming greater

at poles than
equator, greater
at night, mostly
troposphere

Future Scenarios
General Circulation Models (GMCs) used
to predict future climate
Projected warming

of 1 to 3.5 C
between 1990 &
2100
Likely scenario:

doubling of CO2
(from 280 ppm to
560 ppm) before
2100 leading to
warming of 2 C

Solutions to Global Warming

Preparing for Global Warming

Legalese Global Warming

International Agreements

Kyoto Agreement (1997)

38

developed countries must cut greenhouse

emissions to 5.2% below 1990 levels between 20082012
Developing countries exempted
Allow emissions trading, in which countries can sell
its excess reductions to others-CAP-N-TRADE
Countries can also plant trees to meet goal

U.S. refuses to ratify

(Australia too)

Kyoto Protocol Continued

Why not join?

Bad for the economy

Didnt include all nations BUT U.S. produces more GHG than
any other nation

What instead?

GW Bush called for voluntary reductions up to 4.5%---but

based off current values, not 1990 values (so not a big cut)

Did form Asia-Pacific Partnership for Clean Development and

Climate (US, Japan, China, Australia, India, S. Korea)
Goal: cut emissions in half by the end of the century

2005: 165 US cities voted to support the Kyoto Protocol

Kyoto Effectiveness
Its a work in progress
In 2008: EU emissions dropped by 3%, 40% of this

drop is due to Kyoto, 30% is due to the recession,

much of that drop came from a switchover from coal
to natural gas. New Carbon Finance
A study shows an increase green technology
patents in countries that have adopted Kyoto.
Innovation is crucial to defeating climate change.
-Adam Stein, the TerraPass Network

The Ozone Shield

A naturally occurring layer of ozone (O3) in the

upper stratosphere
Filters incoming UV rays from the sun
Life couldnt survive if full spectrum of UV rays
reached Earth

Ozone Depletion
CFCs emitted into atmosphere; theyre stable,

move from troposphere to stratosphere

UV breaks off chlorine molecule (Cl) from CFC
Cl acts as a catalyst to break down ozone (O3)

catalyst promotes a chemical reaction without itself being

used up in the reaction
shifts equilibrium of oxygen / ozone reaction:

O3

O2 + O

Ozone Depleting Chemicals

Chemical

Source

CFCs/HCFCs/HFCs

Air conditioners, refrigerators, plastic

foam

Halons

Fire extinguishers

Methyl bromide

Fumigants

Carbon Tetrachloride/Methyl
chloriform

Solvent/dry cleaning

Hydrogen chloride

US space shuttles

Scientific Evidence
In 1974, Rowland and Molina, chemists from UC

Berkeley called for an immediate ban of CFCs (a $28

billion per year industry) in spray cans.
Their findings:

Large quantities of CFCs being released into troposphere

Remain in troposphere because they are insoluble in water
Over 11-20 years rise into stratosphere
In stratosphere, the CFC molecules facilitate the breakdown of the
ozone shield

Banning CFCs today leads to

consequences tomorrow (lag time)

Seasonal Thinning
Ozone holes occur over poles-especially in the South
1984: 40-50% of the ozone over Antarctica was being

destroyed during the spring and early summer (Sept.-Dec.)

2000: ozone thinning above Antarctica was the largest
ever; covered an area three times the size of the continental
U.S. (11 million square miles)
Measurements indicate that CFCs are the primary culprits

Affects of Seasonal Thinning

1. Each sunless winter, steady winds blow in a circular pattern

over the earths poles creating a polar vortex; huge

swirling mass of very cold air that is isolated from the rest of
the atmosphere until the sun returns a few months later.

2. Water droplets in clouds enter this circling frigid air, they

form tiny ice crystals.

3. The surfaces of these ice crystals collects CFCs and releases

Cl and ClO atoms which form molecules and accumulate in

the polar vortex.

4. When sunlight returns, the light breaks up the stored Cl 2O2

molecules, releasing large numbers of Cl atoms and

initiating the catalyzed chlorine cycle destroying ozone.

What Happens to the Vortex?

Huge masses of ozone depleted air above Antarctica flow
northward and linger for a few weeks over parts of
Australia, New Zealand, South America, and South Africa.
Raises biologically damaging UV-B levels in these areas by
3-10% and in some years as much as 20%.

Projected Ozone Loss 2010-2019

Dark red represents ozone depletion of 54% or
more; light blue, 18-30%; dark blue, 6-12%.

Consequences of Depletion
Humans

Increase in skin cancer & cataracts, especially in southern hemisphere

More photochemical smog lung problems, suppressed immune response, cancer
Animals
Species disruption through increased exposure to UV-B radiation
Disruption of food chain
Plants/Primary Producers

Reduction in phytoplankton
Decrease in NPP
Tissue damage

Economy

Lower crop yields

Less wood
Damage to paint, infrastructure

Preventions & Solutions

Phase out use of ozonedepleting chemicals
halons,

CFCs, methyl chloroform, methyl bromide

Phase in use of CFC substitutes

nonhalogen

aerosol propellants, hydrochlorofluorocarbons

(HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), hydrocarbons (HCs),
ammonia, water & steam, terpenes, helium

Technofixes

Huge radio-controlled blimps to form an electrical curtain

Lasers blasting CFCs out of the atmosphere before they
reach the stratosphere

Legalese Ozone Depletion

International Agreements

Montreal Protocol (1987)

Cut emission of CFCs by 35% by 2000

London (1990) and Copenhagen (1992)

Accelerate phase-out of other key ozone-depleting chemicals

Bali Indonesia (2011)

196 parties- it is the most widely ratified treaties in United
Nations history
Have enabled reductions of over 97% of all global consumption
of controlled ozone depleting substances
Winter 2011-40% ozone loss over Antarcticahighest on record
(30% previous highest)

Lag time from previous use of ozone depleting chemicals-so

expected

World-Wide Efforts
Continued depletion for several decades

11-20 year time lag between when CFCs are released into the
atmosphere and when they actually reach the stratosphere
Persistence for decades

Return to 1980 levels by about 2050 and to 1950 levels by

about 2100assuming:

International agreements are followed

No major volcanic eruptions

Restoring the ozone layer may lead to an increase in

global warming

Ozone depletion has been cooling the troposphere

Disguise as much as 30% of global warming caused by our
greenhouse gas emissions.

Effects of Legal Action

Ozone-damaging stratospheric chlorine/bromine

Abundance (parts per trillion)

15,000
No protocol
12,000
1987
Montreal
Protocol

9,000
6,000

1992
Copenhagen
Protocol

3,000

1950

1975

2000

2025
Year

2050

2075

2100

The Boiled Frog Syndrome

Global Warming and

Ozone Depletion occur

gradually
Its hard to see/feel
the effects-easy to
deny its occurring
Once things start to
get seriousit might
be too late!