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Ecosystems
An ecosystem consists of all the living organisms in a given
area, along with the abiotic factors that influence them.

Ecosystems are dynamic,

continually changing as the
organisms within them interact
with one another, and the ever
changing environment.

Energy and nutrients generally

flow between organisms within
the same ecosystem, and little
is lost to the outside.

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Biotic and abiotic factors
An ecosystem is formed of biotic and abiotic components.

Biological organisms are part

of their ecosystems biotic
component. The organisms
within an ecosystem all affect
one another, acting as either
an energy source, or a
competitor.

The abiotic component is the non-biological part of an

ecosystem. This includes the climate, light level and rainfall.

Some abiotic factors, such as the soil, can be altered by the

presence of organisms.

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Niches
All organisms occupy a specific niche within an ecosystem.
A niche is often described as an organisms role within its
ecosystem. It encompasses its food source, habitat,
physiology and behaviour.
Natural selection ensures that organisms are adapted to a
specific niche.

How are these

two finches
adapted for
different niches?

Overlap between the niches of two species in the same

ecosystem results in interspecific competition.

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Describing niches

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Succession
Succession is the Primary succession occurs when
gradual change in a organisms colonize a lifeless habitat.
community over time.
During succession
the organisms within
an ecosystem
change its abiotic
conditions.
Secondary succession occurs
This allows better when organisms re-colonize
adapted organisms to a devastated
colonize the area, ecosystem.
replacing its current
inhabitants.

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Sand dune succession

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Species adaptations during succession

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Succession on a rocky surface

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Conservation of habitats
Each seral stage of succession has distinct biotic and abiotic
characteristics. It may be necessary to halt the process of
succession preventing the climax community forming, in order
to conserve unique species.

Unlike other plants, grass leaves

have their meristems at their base,
allowing them to continue growing
even when cut. Thus grasslands can
be maintained by mowing or grazing.

This can help to conserve some rare

wildflower populations which are
endemic to grassland ecosystems.

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From pioneer to climax community

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Populations, communities & ecosystems
How are populations and ecosystems linked?

individuals of
the same
population
species in a
given area +
community
populations of
+ ecosystem
other species
abiotic
environment

The size and health of a population acts as an indicator of its

ecosystems condition. A decline in a population is likely to be
caused by a change in its ecosystem.

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Quantifying a population
The size of a population is influenced by both abiotic and
biotic factors. Thus populations are dynamic, responding to
variations in their environment.

Populations can be measured in a number of ways.

size The number of individuals in a population.

density The number of individuals per unit area.
The change in the number of individuals
growth rate
per unit time.

The populations size, and distribution in both space and time

is only apparent when each of these measures is known.

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A simple population model

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Describing populations over time

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Density dependence
The availability of resources such as food and mates
depends on population size. Similarly disease spreads more
effectively through a dense population.

Factors whose effect upon a population k

depends on the populations size are

pop. size
density dependent. They often cause
intraspecific competition and are
generally important for determining a
populations carrying capacity (k). time

Other resources, such as temperature, rainfall and salinity,

remain constant regardless of population size. These are
called density independent factors.

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Predator-prey interactions
Interspecies interactions can limit a populations size.
Predator-prey interactions are an obvious example.
The prey population size depends upon food availability.
A high predator population can cause prey numbers to drop.
A low prey population can suppress predator numbers.
prey
population
size
predator
time
These cycles are rare as most predators have multiple prey
species. They generally feed on the most common species,
preventing severe declines in predator and prey numbers.

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Competing populations

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Growth curves summary

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Investigating populations
When investigating real populations it is rarely possible to
count and study every individual. Instead a sample of the
population is used to study the population as a whole.
Scientists aim to select a random sample that is
representative of the whole population.
The sampling method depends upon:
the accuracy required
the nature of the organisms being
sampled
the size of the area being sampled
the time available for the study.

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Common sampling techniques

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Studying animal populations

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Field study

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The human population
There are currently more than 6 billion people on Earth.

population (billions)
The human population has
grown exponentially since
the industrial revolution
when new technology
increased the carrying
capacity of the Earth.

The population growth rate can be calculated by subtracting

death rate from birth rate, or using the following equation:
population at population at
population
= end of period start of period 100
growth rate
population at start of period

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Demography
Demography is the study of the size and structure of
populations, including a populations age and sex distribution.
Demographic rates, such as population growth rate, birth
rate and death rate can be used to describe how a population,
or a subset of a population, changes over time.

births deaths
population
immigration emigration

A populations demographic rates are determined by the

environmental conditions. Human populations are greatly
affected by their level of economic development.

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Demographic transition model

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Population pyramids

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Survival curves and life expectancy
Survival curves measure the 100 developing
life spans of a sample of developed
10,000 individuals. At each stone age

survivors (%)
age the number of survivors
per 10,000 is plotted. 50

In general, more developed

countries tend to have higher
survival rates. This causes their 0
curves to sit further to the right. 0 50 100
age (years)
Survival curves can also be used to determine average life
expectancy. This is the age at which 50 % of the sample
population is still alive.

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Interpreting data on human populations

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Glossary

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Whats the keyword?

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Multiple-choice quiz

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