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Unit 3
http://www.unit5.org/chemistry
Guiding Questions
How do we know atoms exist?
How do we know that electrons, protons, and
neutrons exist?
What is radiation and what does it come from?
Is radiation safe?
Where does matter come from?
How are elements formed?
Are all atoms of an element the same?
How do we measure atoms if they are so small?
How do we know what stars are made of?
What is wrong with this picture?
Table of Contents
Atomic Structure
Properties of atoms:
indestructible.
changeable, however, into different forms.
an infinite number of kinds so there are an infinite number of elements.
hard substances have rough, prickly atoms that stick together.
liquids have round, smooth atoms that slide over one another.
smell is caused by atoms interacting with the nose rough atoms hurt.
sleep is caused by atoms escaping the brain.
death too many escaped or didnt return.
the heart is the center of anger.
the brain is the center of thought.
the liver is the seat of desire.
OConnor Davis, MacNab, McClellan, CHEMISTRY Experiments and Principles 1982, page 26,
Early Ideas on Elements
Robert Boyle stated...
A substance was an
element unless it could
be broken down to two
or more simpler
substances.
H
H
H2 H O O H2O
H
+ O2
H O H
H2 H O H2O
H
Lego's can be taken apart and built into many different things.
Atoms can be rearranged into different substances.
Conservation of Mass
High
voltage
electrodes
High
voltage
H2O
H2 5.0 g H2
O2 0 g H2
80 g O2
45
? g H2O
300 g (mass
of chamber) 40 g O2
+
385 g total 300 g (mass
of chamber)
+
385 g total
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 204
Law of Definite Proportions
Joseph Louis Proust (1754 1826)
4. All atoms of the same element are identical in mass, size, and
other properties.
John Dalton
1808
Daltons Models of Atoms
Water, H2O
Methane, CH4
History: On The Human Side
1834 Michael Faraday - electrolysis experiments 1919 Ernest Rutherford - announced the first artificial
suggested electrical nature of matter transmutation of atoms
1895 Wilhelm Roentgen - discovered X-rays when 1932 James Chadwick - discovered the neutron by
cathode rays strike anode alpha particle bombardment of Beryllium
1896 Henri Becquerel - discovered "uranic rays" and 1934 Frederick Joliet and Irene Joliet Curie - produced
radioactivity the first artificial radioisotope
1896 Marie (Marya Sklodowska) and Pierre Curie - 1938 Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, Lise Meitner, and
discovered that radiation is a property of the Otto Frisch - discovered nuclear fission of
atom, and not due to chemical reaction. uranium-235 by neutron bombardment
(Marie named this property radioactivity.) 1940 Edwin M McMillan and Philip Abelson -
1897 Joseph J. Thomson - discovered the electron discovered the first transuranium element,
through Crookes tube experiments neptunium, by neutron irradiation of uranium in a
1898 Marie and Piere Curie - discovered the cyclotron
radioactive elements polonium and radium 1941 Glenn T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, Joseph
1899 Ernest Rutherford - discovered alpha and beta W. Kennedy and Arthur C. Wahl - announced
particles discovery of plutonium from beta particle
1900 Paul Villard - discovered gamma rays emission of neptunium
1942 Enrico Fermi - produced the first nuclear fission
1903 Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy - chain-reaction
established laws of radioactive decay and 1944 Glenn T. Seaborg - proposed a new format for
transformation the periodic table to show that a new actinide series of 14
1910 Frederick Soddy - proposed the isotope concept elements would fall below and be analogous to the 14
to explain the existence of more than one atomic lanthanide-series elements.
weight of radioelements 1964 Murray Gell-Mann hypothesized that quarks are the
1911 Ernest Rutherford - used alpha particles to fundamental particles that make up all known subatomic
explore gold foil; discovered the nucleus and the particles except leptons.
proton; proposed the nuclear theory of the atom
Radioactivity (1896)
1. rays or particles produced by
unstable nuclei
a. Alpha Rays helium nucleus
b. Beta Part. high speed electron
c. Gamma ray high energy x-ray
2. Discovered by Becquerel
exposed photographic film
3. Further work by Curies
Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852 - 1908)
Radioactivity
Anode
(+)
Mask holder
The Effect of an Obstruction on
Cathode Rays
cathode
yellow-green
fluorescence
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 117
Crookes Tube
voltage William Crookes
source
- +
metal disks
Television Picture Tube
Blue beam
Green beam
Red beam Glass window
Shadow mask
Fluorescent
Fluorescent screen screen with
Electron
gun phosphor dots
Electron
beam
Deflecting
electromagnets
Red beam
Green beam
Blue beam
Shadow mask
A Cathode Ray Tube
Source of
Electrical
Potential
Stream of negative
particles (electrons)
Metal Plate
Gas-filled
glass tube Metal plate
Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 58
Background Information
Cathode Rays
Form when high voltage is applied across
electrodes in a partially evacuated tube.
Originate at the cathode (negative electrode)
and move to the anode (positive electrode)
Carry energy and can do work
Travel in straight lines in the absence of an
external field
Cathode Ray Experiment
1897 Experimentation
Using a cathode ray tube, Thomson was
able to deflect cathode rays with an
electrical field.
The rays bent towards the positive pole,
indicating that they are negatively
charged.
The Effect of an Electric Field on
Cathode Rays
negative
source of plate
High _
voltage
high voltage
cathode + anode
positive
plate
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 117
Conclusions
He compared the value with the mass/ charge ratio for the
lightest charged particle.
By comparison, Thomson estimated that the cathode ray
particle weighed 1/1000 as much as hydrogen, the lightest
atom.
He concluded that atoms do contain subatomic particles - atoms
are divisible into smaller particles.
This conclusion contradicted Daltons postulate and was not
widely accepted by fellow physicists and chemists of his day.
Since any electrode material produces an identical ray, cathode
ray particles are present in all types of matter - a universal
negatively charged subatomic particle later named the electron
Conclusiones
Cathode
voltage high voltage
Rays cathode
yellow-green
fluorescence
source of
low voltage
cathode + anode
positive
plate
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, pages 117-118
J.J. Thomson
He proved that atoms of
any element can be
made to emit tiny
negative particles.
From this he concluded
that ALL atoms must
contain these negative
particles.
He knew that atoms did
not have a net negative
charge and so there must
be balancing the negative
charge.
J.J. Thomson
William Thomson
(Lord Kelvin)
In 1910 proposed
the Plum Pudding
model Spherical cloud of
Negative electrons Positive charge
were embedded into
Electrons
a positively charged
spherical cloud.
-
- electrons
-
- -
-
-
-
Rutherford
Rutherford
Learned physics in
J.J. Thomson lab.
Noticed that alpha
particles were
sometime deflected
by something in the
air.
Gold-foil experiment
Lead collimator
Gold foil
particle
source
Rutherfords Apparatus
Rutherford received the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his pioneering work in nuclear chemistry.
radioactive
substance
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 120
Rutherfords Apparatus
radioactive
substance
fluorescent screen
circular - ZnS coated
gold foil
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 120
Geiger-Muller Counter
Hans Geiger
Speaker gives
click for
each particle
Window
Particle
path
Argon atoms
Geiger Counter
Ionization of fill gas
takes place along
track of radiation (-)
Speaker gives
click for
each particle
(+)
Metal tube
(negatively
charged)
+ e-
Window e- +
+ + e-
e-
expected
path
expected
marks on screen
Observed Result:
mark on
screen
likely alpha
particle path
Interpreting the
Observed Deflections
. . .
.
beam of . .
undeflected
. alpha .
particles
particles . .
. .
. .
. deflected particle
. .
gold foil
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 120
Rutherford Scattering (cont.)
Rutherford interpreted this result by suggesting that
the particles interacted with very small and heavy
particles
Case B
Particle goes through
atom?
Case D
. Particle path is altered
as it passes through atom?
Table: hypothetical description of alpha particles
(based on properties of alpha radiation)
observation hypothesis
alpha rays deflect towards a negatively ... alpha particles have a positive charge
charged plate and away from a positively
charged plate
alpha rays are deflected only slightly by ... alpha particles either have much
an electric field; a cathode ray passing lower charge or much greater mass
through the same field is deflected than electrons
strongly
+
-
+
-
-
+
-
- +
+ -
+
-
- +
+ -
-
. . .
.
beam of . .
undeflected
. alpha .
particles
particles . .
. .
. .
.
. .
gold foil
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 120
Rutherfords
Gold-Leaf
Experiment
Conclusions:
Atom is mostly empty space
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 120
Hit moth driving car no change in car
direction
Hit deer car changes direction
Gold Atom
deer
............... . ... .
. ... ..... .. ... ... .......
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. ...........................................................
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.......................................
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......
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.
.
...
.
+
- oil droplet
under observation
Charged plate
Nucleus
Electron
Orbit
Energy Levels
Bohr Model of Atom
Increasing energy
n=3 of orbits
e- n=2 e-
n=1 e-
e-
e-
e- e
-
e-
e-
e-
e-
A photon is emitted
with energy E = hf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chemistry
Modelo de Bohr del tomo
El aumento de la energa
n=3 De las rbitas
e- n=2 e-
n=1 e-
e-
e-
e- e
-
e-
e-
e-
e-
Un fotn es emitido
Con la energa E = hf
Hill, Petrucci, General Chemistry An Integrated Approach 2nd Edition, page 294
Quantum Mechanical Model
Niels Bohr &
Albert Einstein
+
-
+
-
-
+
-
e
e + +
e -
e
+ + -
+e e
+ e - +
- -
e
+ e + e
Daltons
Greek model
model Thomsons plum-pudding Rutherfords model
(400
(1803)
B.C.) model (1897) (1909)
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 125
Models of the Atom
e
e + e + -
+e
e
+ -
+
e e +e - +
+ e + e
- -
Daltons model
Greek model Thomsons plum-pudding Rutherfords model Bohrs model Charge-cloud model
(1803)
(400 B.C.) model (1897) (1909) (1913) (present)
1803 John Dalton 1897 J.J. Thomson, a British 1911 New Zealander 1926 Erwin Schrdinger
scientist, discovers the electron, Ernest Rutherford states 1913 In Niels Bohr's develops mathematical
pictures atoms as model, the electrons move
tiny, indestructible leading to his "plum-pudding" that an atom has a dense, equations to describe the
model. He pictures electrons positively charged nucleus. in spherical orbits at fixed motion of electrons in
particles, with no distances from the nucleus.
internal structure. embedded in a sphere of Electrons move randomly in atoms. His work leads to
positive electric charge. the space around the nucleus. the electron cloud model.
1800 1805 ..................... 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945
Thomson (1904)
(positive and negative charges)
+
+ Rutherford (1911)
+ (the nucleus)
+
+ +
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From the time of Dalton to Schrdinger, our model
of the atom has undergone many modifications.
Ralph A. Burns, Fundamentals of Chemistry 1999, page 137
Bohr Model
Neils Bohr
Planetary
model
Electrons
(-) charge no mass located outside the nucleus
Protons
(+) charge 1 amu located inside the nucleus
Neutrons
no charge 1 amu located inside the nucleus
Discovery of the Neutron
9 4 12 1
4 Be +
2 He 6 C +
0 n
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter 3rd Edition, page 764 *Walter Boethe
Subatomic particles
Relative Actual
Name Symbol Charge mass mass (g)
ATOM A T O M
NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS ELECTRONS
ELECTRONS
PROTONS
PROTONS NEUTRONS
NEUTRONS NNegative
E G A T I V Charge
E CHARG E
PPositive
O S IT IV E NNeutral
EUTRAL
CHARG E
Charge CHARG E
Charge
equal in a
QUARKS
Atomic
MostNumber
of the atoms mass.
neutral atom
equals the # of... Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem
Symbols
X
# protons Mass
+ # neutrons number
mass number
# protons Atomic
number
Symbols
Find the
number of protons = 9 +
number of neutrons = 10
F
number of electrons = 9
19
Atomic number = 9 9
Mass number = 19
Symbols
Find the
number of protons = 35
number of neutrons = 45
Br
number of electrons = 35 80
Atomic number = 35 35
Mass number = 80
http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/bromine.gif
Symbols
Find the
number of protons = 11
number of neutrons = 12
Na
number of electrons = 11 23
Atomic number = 11
Mass number = 23 11
Sodium atom
Symbols
Find the
number of protons = 11
number of neutrons = 12
Na
number of electrons = 10
23 1+
Atomic number = 11 11
Mass number = 23
Sodium ion
Symbols
If an element has an atomic number of
23 and a mass number of 51 what is
the
number of protons = 23
number of neutrons = 28
number of electrons = 23
Complete symbol
V
51
23
Symbols
If an element has 60 protons and 84
neutrons what is the
Atomic number = 60
Mass number = 144
number of electrons = 60
Complete symbol
Nd
144
60
Symbols
If a neutral atom of an element has 78
electrons and 117 neutrons what is the
Atomic number = 78
Mass number = 195
number of protons = 78
Complete symbol
Pt
195
78
Masses of Atoms
Mass Number
Isotopes
Ions
Relative Atomic Mass
Average Atomic Mass
20 18 35
Ca Ar Br
40.08 39.948 79.904
Bohr - Rutherford diagrams
Putting all this together, we get B-R diagrams
To draw them you must know the # of protons, neutrons,
and electrons (2,8,8,2 filling order)
Draw protons (p+), (n0) in circle (i.e. nucleus)
Draw electrons around in shells
He Li
Li shorthand
3 p+
2 p+ 3 p+ 4 n0 2e 1e
2 n0 4 n0
O Na
8 p+ 2e 6e 11 p+ 2e 8e 1e
8 n 12 n
Mass Number
+ +
+
NOT on the Nucleus
Electrons
e- +
Periodic Table! + + Proton
e- e- Nucleus
e-
e-
Carbon-12
Neutrons 6
e- Protons 6
Electrons 6
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with different
mass numbers.
Nuclear symbol:
Mass # 12
Atomic # 6 C
Hyphen notation: carbon-12
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem
Isotopes
Neutron
+ +
+
Electrons
Nucleus
+
+ + Proton
Nucleus
Proton
Nucleus +
+ Neutron
Carbon-12
+
Neutrons 6 + +
Electrons
Protons 6
Electrons 6 +
Carbon-14
Neutrons 8
Protons 6 Nucleus
Electrons 6
6
Li 7
Li
3 p+ 2e 1e 3 p+ 2e 1e
3 n0 4 n0
Neutron Neutron
Electrons Electrons
Nucleus + Nucleus
+
+ + Proton + + Proton
Nucleus Nucleus
Lithium-6 Lithium-7
Neutrons 3 Neutrons 4
Protons 3 Protons 3
Electrons 3 Electrons 3
17
Cl
Isotopes 37
Chlorine-37
atomic #: 17
mass #: 37
# of protons: 17 37
# of electrons: 17
# of neutrons: 20
17 Cl
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem
Relative Atomic Mass
C atom = 1.992 10-23 g
12
+ +
1p = 1.007276 amu Electrons
+
Nucleus
+
1n = 1.008665 amu + + Proton
Carbon-12
Neutrons 6
Protons 6
Electrons 6
Average Atomic Mass
Avg.
(16)(99.76) + (17)(0.04) + (18)(0.20) 16.00
Atomic = =
Mass 100 amu
80 Cl-35
70
AAM = (34.97 amu)(0.7553) + (36.97 amu)(0.2447)
60 AAM = (26.412841 amu) + (9.046559 amu)
Abundance
50
40
30 Cl-37
20
10
0
34 35 36 37
Mass
Mass Spectrophotometer
magnetic field
heaviest
ions
stream
of ions of
different
masses lightest
ions
electron gas
beam
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter 3rd Edition, page 138
Weighing atoms
gas sample ions accelerate magnetic field
enters here towards charged deflects lightest ions
. slit most
filament current
ionizes the gas
and abundances
interpreting mass spectra
average atomic weights
- computed from isotopic masses and abundances
- significant figures of tabulated atomic weights gives some idea
of natural variation in isotopic abundances
Copyright 1997-2005 by Fred Senese
Mass Spectrometry
Photographic plate
Hg-196 0.146%
Hg-198 10.02%
30 Hg-199 16.84% 196 199 201 204
Hg-200 23.13%
Hg-201 13.22%
Hg-202 29.80% Mass spectrum of mercury vapor
25
Relative number of atoms
Hg-204 6.85%
20
15
10
Mass number
80
Hg
200.59
A Hg-196 0.146%
B Hg-198 10.02%
C Hg-199 16.84%
D Hg-200 23.13%
E Hg-201 13.22%
F Hg-202 29.80%
G Hg-204 6.85%
(% "A")(mass "A") + (% "B")(mass "B") + (% "C")(mass "C") + (% "D")(mass "D") + (% "E")(mass "E") + (% F)(mass F) + (% G)(mass G) = AAM
x = 200.63956 amu
92
U
Separation of Isotopes 238
California WEB
Naming Isotopes
California WEB
Using a periodic table and what you know about atomic
number, mass, isotopes, and electrons, fill in the chart:
8 8 8
Potassium 39 +1
Br 45 -1
30 35 30
Oxygen O 8 16 8 8 8 0
Potassium K 19 39 19 20 18 +1
Bromine Br 35 80 35 45 36 -1
Zinc Zn 30 35 30 65 30 0
carbon atom
(1 amu) (1 amu) (1 amu) (1 amu)
(12 amu)
Hydrogen 1
H = 99.985% 2H = 0.015%
Carbon 12
C = 98.90% 13C = 1.10%
Nitrogen 14
N = 99.63% 15N = 0.37%
Oxygen 16
O = 99.762% O = 0.038% 18O = 0.200%
17
Sulfur 32
S = 95.02% 33
S = 0.75%
34
S = 4.21% 36
S = 0.02%
Chlorine 35
Cl = 75.77% 37Cl = 24.23%
Bromine 79
Br = 50.69%81Br = 49.31%
For example.Methane
For carbon 1 in approximately 90
atoms are carbon-13
The rest are carbon-12 the isotope that is
98.9% abundant.
So, for approximately 90 methane
molecules1 carbon is carbon-13
C-13
WheresWaldo?
Wheres Waldo?
Calculating averages
You have five rocks, four with a mass of 50 g, and
one with a mass of 60 g. What is the average
mass of the rocks?
Total mass = (4 x 50) + (1 x 60) = 260 g
California WEB
Calculating averages
Average mass = 4 x 50 + 1 x 60 = 260 g
5 5 5
Average mass = .8 x 50 + .2 x 60
80% of the rocks were 50 grams
20% of the rocks were 60 grams
Average = % as decimal x mass +
% as decimal x mass + % as
decimal x mass +
California WEB
Isotopes
Because of the existence of isotopes, the mass of a
collection of atoms has an average value.
California WEB
Atomic Mass
Calculate the atomic mass of copper if copper has two isotopes.
69.1% has a mass of 62.93 amu and the rest has a mass of
64.93 amu. Isotope
Percent
Mass
Abundance
63.548
Average atomic mass (AAM) (% " A" )(mass " A" ) (% " B" )(mass " B" ) ...
Cu-65 A B 29 C A. B. C.
Argon D E F 40 D. E. F.
Ba2+ 56 G H I G. H. I.
Given the average atomic mass of an element is 118.21 amu and it has
three isotopes (A, B, and C):
isotope A has a mass of 117.93 amu and is 87.14% abundant
isotope B has a mass of 120.12 amu and is 12.36% abundant
Cu-65 A = 29 B = 36 29 C = 65
Argon D = 18 E = 22 F = 18 40
Ba2+ 56 G = 81 H = 54 I = 137
Given the average atomic mass of an element is 118.21 amu and it has
three isotopes (A, B, and C):
isotope A has a mass of 117.93 amu and is 87.14% abundant
isotope B has a mass of 120.12 amu and is 12.36% abundant
Average Atomic Mass (% " A" )(mass " A" ) (% " B" )(mass " B" ) (% " C" )(mass " C" )
118.21 amu (0.8714)(117.93 amu) (0.1236)(120.12 amu) (0.005)(X amu)
118.21 amu 102.764202 amu 14.846832 amu (0.005)(X amu)
0.598966 0.005 X amu
X 119.7932 amu
I. Waves and Particles
De Broglies Hypothesis
Particles have wave characteristics
Waves have particle characteristics
= h/m
Wave-Particle Duality of Nature
Waves properties are significant at small
momentum
Electrons as Waves
Louis de Broglie
Louis de Broglie (1924) ~1924
50 50 50
0 0 0
- 50 - 50 - 50
n=4
n=1 L = 1 ( )
2 n=5
1 half-wavelength
n=2 L = 2 ( ) n=6
2
2 half-wavelengths
Forbidden
n = 3.3
n=3 L = 3 ( )
2
3 half-wavelengths
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Electrons as Waves
Microscope
Electron
Quantum Mechanics
Erwin Schrdinger
Schrdinger Wave Equation (1926) ~1926
1s a0
1 Z 3/2
e
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Quantum Mechanics
Orbital (electron cloud)
Region in space where there is 90%
probability of finding an electron
90% probability of Electron Probability vs. Distance
40
finding the electron
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Distance from the Nucleus (pm)
Orbital
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Quantum Numbers
Four Quantum Numbers:
Specify the address of each electron
in an atom
UPPER LEVEL
1s 2s
Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 334
Quantum Numbers
1. Principal Quantum Number ( n )
Energy level
1s
n2 = # of orbitals in 2s
3s
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1s orbital imagined as onion
s orbital
p orbitals
d orbitals
Atomic Orbitals
s, p, and d-orbitals
A B C
s orbitals: p orbitals: d orbitals:
Hold 2 electrons Each of 3 pairs of Each of 5 sets of
(outer orbitals of lobes holds 2 electrons lobes holds 2 electrons
Groups 1 and 2) = 6 electrons = 10 electrons
(outer orbitals of (found in elements
Groups 13 to 18) with atomic no. of 21
and higher)
Kelter, Carr, Scott, , Chemistry: A World of Choices 1999, page 82
Copyright 2006 Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
21s 22s 23s
r r r r r r
Distance from nucleus
y y y
z z z
x x x
px pz py
p-Orbitals
px pz py
z z z z
x x x x
s px pz py
2s 2p (x, y, z) carbon
s p d
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f
The azimuthal quantum number
Second quantum number l
is called the azimuthal quantum number
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d
The first ionization energy level has only one sublevel (1s).
The second energy level has two sublevels (2s and 2p).
The third energy level has three sublevels (3s, 3p, and 3d).
2s
2px
2py 2pz
Sublevel s s p s p d
n 1 2 3 4 ...n
l 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
Subshell
designation s s p s p d s p d f
Orbitals in
subshell 1 1 3 1 3 5 1 3 5 7
Subshell
capacity 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14
Principal shell
capacity 2 8 18 32 ...2n 2
For any electron, ms can have only two possible values, designated
+ (up) and (down), indicating that the two orientations are opposite
and the subscript s is for spin.
Read Section
5.10 - 5.11!
Chem
istry
Electron
orbitals
Equivalent
Electron
shells
H H H H O O O O
(a) H2 (b) O2
H
O H O H H O H H C H
H H
H H
H = 1s1
1s
He = 1s2
1s
Li = 1s2 2s1
1s 2s
Be = 1s2 2s2
1s 2s
He = 1s2
1s
e-
+2
e- Coulombic attraction holds valence electrons to atom.
Be = 1s2 2s2
1s 2s
e-
e-
+4 Coulombic attraction holds valence electrons to atom.
e- e-
Valence electrons are shielded by the kernel electrons.
Therefore the valence electrons are not held as tightly in Be than in He.
Fe = 1s1 2s22p63s23p64s23d6 26 electrons.
Iron has ___
6s 6p 5d 4f
32
5s 5p 4d
e- 18
e-
e - e-
e- 4s 4p 3d
e- e-
e -
e- 18
e- e
- e-
e-
+26 e-
Arbitrary 3s 3p
e
Energy Scale
-
e -
e- e-
8
e- e- e -
e-
e-
e- e- 2s 2p
e-
8
1s
2
NUCLEUS
Electron
Electron
Configurations
Configurations
Orbital Filling
Electron
Element 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s Configuration
H 1s1
He 1s2
NOT CORRECT
Li 1s22s1
Violates Hunds
Rule 1s22s22p2
C
N 1s22s22p3
O 1s22s22p4
F 1s22s22p5
Ne 1s22s22p6
Na 1s22s22p63s1
Electron Configurations
Orbital Filling
Electron
Element 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s Configuration
H 1s1
He 1s2
Li 1s22s1
C 1s22s22p2
N 1s22s22p3
O 1s22s22p4
F 1s22s22p5
Ne 1s22s22p6
Na 1s22s22p63s1
Filling Rules for Electron Orbitals
Aufbau Principle: Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest
energy orbitals available until all the electrons of the atom
have been accounted for.
32
5s 5p 4d
- -
2s 2p
Hunds Rule: Electrons occupy equal-energy orbitals so that a maximum
number of unpaired electrons results. 8
1s
2
*Aufbau is German for building up S N
NUCLEUS
Spin Quantum Number, ms
North South
- N
S
-
32
5s 5p 4d
18
4s 4p 3d
18
Arbitrary
Energy Scale
3s 3p
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
OConnor, Davis, MacNab, McClellan, CHEMISTRY Experiments and Principles 1982, page 177
Maximum Number of Electrons Maximum Number of Electrons In Each Sublevel
In Each Sublevel
Maximum Number
Sublevel Number of Orbitals of Electrons
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
LeMay Jr, Beall, Robblee, Brower, Chemistry Connections to Our Changing World , 1996, page 146
Quantum Numbers
n shell 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
l subshell 0, 1, 2, ... n - 1
ml orbital - l ... 0 ... +l
ms electron spin +1/2 and - 1/2
Order in which subshells are filled
with electrons
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 2 2 6 2 6 2 10
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d
6 2 10
4f
Sublevels
4d
n=4
4p
3d
6d
4s
Energy
5f
7s
6p 7s
6d
5f n=3 3p
5d 6p
4f
6s 5d
5p 6s 4f
4d 5p
4p
5s
5s 4d 3s
3d 4p
4s
Energy
3d
3p 4s
3s
3s
3p
2p
2p
2s 2p n=2
2s
2s
1s
1s
n=1 1s
4f
Sublevels
4d
s p d f n=4
s p d
4p
s p
s 3d
4s
Energy
n=3 3p
3s
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d10
2p
n=2
2s
n=1 1s
Filling Rules for Electron Orbitals
Aufbau Principle: Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest
energy orbitals available until all the electrons of the atom
have been accounted for.
32
5s 5p 4d
18
4s 4p 3d
18
Arbitrary
Energy Scale
3s 3p
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
OConnor, Davis, MacNab, McClellan, CHEMISTRY Experiments and Principles 1982, page 177
Electron
Electron
capacities
capacities
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Hydrogen
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
H = 1s1
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Helium
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
He = 1s2
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Lithium
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
Li = 1s22s1
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Carbon
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
C = 1s22s22p2
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Nitrogen
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
N = 1s22s22p3
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Fluorine
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
F = 1s22s22p5
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Aluminum
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
Al = 1s22s22p63s23p1
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Argon
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
Ar = 1s22s22p63s23p6
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Iron
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
Fe = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f Lanthanum
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
La = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d10
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La 4s23d104p65s24d105p66s25d1
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
Shorthand Configuration
[Ne] 3s1
C one electron in the s orbital
D orbital shape
Aufbau Principle 7s
5f
6p 7s
6d
5f
5d 6p
Electrons fill the 6s
4f
5p 6s
5d
4f
lowest energy 4d
4p
5s
5s
5p
4d
orbitals first. 4s
3d 4p
3d
3p 4s
3s
Rule 2p
2s 2p
2s
1s
1s
WRONG RIGHT
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8
O
Notation 15.9994
Orbital Diagram
O
8e- 1s 2s 2p
Electron Configuration
1s 2s 2p 2 2 4
Longhand Configuration
S 16e- 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Shorthand Configuration
S16e [Ne] 3s 3p
- 2 4
2 2s 2p
3 3s d (n-1) 3p
4 4s 3d 4p
5 5s 4d 5p
6 6s 5d 6p
7 7s 6d 7p
6 4f
f (n-2) 7 5f
Periodic Patterns
Period #
energy level (subtract for d & f)
A/B Group #
total # of valence e-
1s 1 1st column
of s-block
4
s p
5
6
d (n-1)
7
f (n-2)
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32
Ge
Periodic Patterns 72.61
Example - Germanium
[Ar] 4s 3d 4p 2 10 2
1 p
3 d
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4
4s1 4s2 3d1 3d2 3d3 3d54 3d5 3d6 3d7 3d8 3d
3d109 3d10 4p1 4p2 4p3 4p4 4p5 4p6
4f Cr Cu
4s13d5 4s13d10
4d
n=4
4p
3d
4s Cr
Energy
n=3 3p 4s13d5
3s
4s 3d
2p
n=2
2s
Cu
n=1 1s 4s13d10
4s 3d
Stability
Ion Formation
Atoms gain or lose electrons to become more
stable.
Isoelectronic with the Noble Gases.
1+ 2+ 3+ NA 3- 2- 1- 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
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Stability
Ion Electron Configuration
Write the e- configuration for the closest
Noble Gas
EX: Oxygen ion O2- Ne
2 2 6 2 6 2 8
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Excited State
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p6 4s1 3d 9
Pauli Exclusion
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Hunds Rule
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
28
2 2 6 2 6 2 8
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Excited State
2 2 6 2 6 1 9
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
VIOLATES Pauli Exclusion
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
VIOLATES Hunds Rule
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Write out the complete electron configuration for the following:
1) An atom of nitrogen
2) An atom of silver
POP
3) An atom of uranium (shorthand)
1s 2s 2p
QUIZ 3s 3p 4s 3d
Which rule states no two electrons can spin the same direction in a single orbital?
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Which rule states no two electrons can spin the same direction in a single orbital?
Pauli exclusion principle
Extra credit: Draw a Bohr model of a Ti4+ cation. n= 22+ n
1 1s 2 3 4 5 6 7 1s
2 2s 2p
3 3s 3p
Periods
4 4s 3d 4p
5 5s 4d 5p
6 6s La 5d 6p
7 7s Ac 6d
4f Lanthanide series
5f Actinide series
Electron Filling in Periodic Table s
s
1 p
3 d
s
s
H He
H p 1 2
1
1
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Na Mg d Al Si P S Cl Ar
3
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
7
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109
f
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Electron Filling in Periodic Table s
s
H He
H p 1s1 1s2
1
1s1
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2
2s1 2s2 2p1 2p2 2p3 2p4 2p5 2p6
Na Mg d Al Si P S Cl Ar
3
3s1 3s2 3p1 3p2 3p3 3p4 3p5 3p6
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4
4s1 4s2 3d1 3d2 3d3 3d5 3d5 3d6 3d7 3d8 3d10 3d10 4p1 4p2 4p3 4p4 4p5 4p6
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5
5s1 5s2 4d1 4d2 4d4 4d5 4d6 4d7 4d8 4d10 4d10 4p1 5p1 5p2 5p3 5p4 5p5 5p6
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6
6s1 6s2 5d2 5d3 5d4 5d5 5d6 5d7 5d9 5d10 5d10 6p1 6p2 6p3 6p4 6p5 6p6
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
7
7s1 7s2 6d2 6d3 6d4 6d5 6d6 6d7
f
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
5d1 4f2 4f3 4f4 4f5 4f6 4f7 4f7 4f9 4f10 4f11 4f12 4f13 4f14 4f114
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
6d1 6d2 5f2 5f3 5f4 5f6 5f7 5f7 5f8 5f10 5f11 5f14 5f13 5f14 5f14
Electron Filling in Periodic Table s
s
1 p
3 d
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4
4s1 4s2 3d1 3d2 3d3 3d54 3d5 3d6 3d7 3d8 3d
3d109 3d10 4p1 4p2 4p3 4p4 4p5 4p6
4f Cr Cu
4s13d5 4s13d10
4d
n=4
4p
3d
4s Cr
Energy
n=3 3p 4s13d5
3s
4s 3d
2p
n=2
2s
Cu
n=1 1s 4s13d10
4s 3d
Electron Configurations
Hydrogen
1 H
of First 18 Elements: Helium
2 He
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
= valence electron
V. Outer Level e-s
Valence electrons
Usually involved in chemical
changes
Dot diagram
Symbol represents the nucleus
Dots represent the outer e-s
First Four Energy Levels
n=4
Energy n=3
n=2
n=1
Sublevels
Sublevel designation
4s
4p 4d 4f Principal
Four sublevels
level 4
3s 3p 3d Principal
Three sublevels
level 3
2s 2p Principal
Two sublevels
level 2
1s
Principal
One sublevel
level 1
Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 334
Principal Level 2 Divided
2s sublevel 2p sublevel
3s
2p
n=2
2s
n=1 1s
Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids
Metals and Nonmetals
H He
1
1 2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2 Nonmetals
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
METALS
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
7
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 Metalloids
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Metals, Nonmetals, & Metalloids
1
2 Nonmetals
3
5 Metals
6
Metalloids
24 25 26
Atomic symbol 12 Mg Mg 12 Mg 12
Number of protons 12 12 12
Number of electrons 12 12 12
Mass number 24 25 26
Number of neutrons 12 13 14
Isotope Notation Mg-24 Mg-25 Mg-26
1 p+ 1 p+
1p +
1e -
1 e- 1 e-
1n 2n
1
1
H 2
1
H 3
1
H
(ordinary hydrogen) (heavy hydrogen) (radioactive hydrogen)
Deuterium (H-2)
1 p+
1 proton, 1 neutron, 1 electron 1n 1 e-
used in heavy water
Tritium (H-3)
1 p+
1 proton, 2 neutrons, 1 electron 2n 1 e-
radioactive
Isotopes of Three Common Elements
LeMay Jr, Beall, Robblee, Brower, Chemistry Connections to Our Changing World , 1996, page 110
Radioisotopes
Radioactive isotopes
Many uses
Medical diagnostics
Optimal composition of
fertilizers
Abrasion studies in engines and
tires
Radioisotope is injected
into the bloodstream to
observe circulation.
Half-Life of Isotopes
IONS
Differ by number of electrons
ISOTOPES
Differ by number of neutrons
Formation of Cation
sodium atom
Na
sodium ion
Na+
e- e-
e- e- e-
e- e-
e-
e- e-
e
-
11p+ loss of 11p+
e- one valence e- e-
e- electron
e-
e-
e -
e- e- e-
Formation of Anion
chlorine atom chloride ion
Cl e-
Cl1-
e- gain of
e-
e- one valence e-
electron e-
e-
e- e-
e-
e- e- e-
e- e-
e- e-
e- 17p+ 17p+
e- e-
e -
e -
e- e- e-
e- e- e-
e -
e- e- e-
e-
e- e- e-
Formation of Ionic Bond
chloride ion
sodium ion Cl1-
Na+ e-
e-
e- e-
e- e- e- e-
e-
e
-
e- e- e- e-
11p+ 17p+
e- e- e- e-
e-
e
-
e- e-
e -
e -
e
-
e-
e-
e-
Ionic Bonding
NaCl
n=3
n=2
-
n=3
-
- - - - -
-
-
-
- - - - -
-
+ -
- - -
- - -
-
- - - - - -
- -
Na Cl Na+ Cl-
[Ne]3s1 [Ne]3s23p5 [Ne] [Ne]3s23p6
n=2
- -
- -
n=1 - -
- -
- - -
-
-
+ - -
-
-
-
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
O O O2
[He]2s22p4 [He]2s22p4
N2 O2 F 2
Cl2
Br2
F2
Newtons First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)
Worksheet - vocabulary
Worksheet - development of atomic theory
Worksheet - atomic number and mass number
Worksheet - ions and subatomic particles
Lab - isotopes
Worksheet - orbital diagrams
Worksheet - electron configuration Episode 6 - Atom
Worksheet - light problems Review Sheet
Worksheet - half-life
Textbook - questions
Outline (general)