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Computer Communications and

Networking

S. D. PATIL
Deputy Director
PSTI
Why it is LAN ?
• Simple and inexpensive connections
• Support for multiple media protocols
• Flexibility to provide any-to-any
connections
• Support for new applications
• Ability to grow easily
Computer Communication
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
• Internet
• Intranet
• LAN stands for Local Area Network. A LAN is a
communications system that allows users to access
and share resources (computers, printers, servers)
with other users.
• LANs provide to share resources and information.
They are simple, inexpensive, and support many
types of protocols.
• Other features include the ability to handle
connections to different types of network
equipment and to support many applications. In
addition, LANs can be easily extended to allow
for changes in the number of users for an
organization that is expanding.
How far is local ?
Normally what limits the distance a LAN can
travel is the type of cable used.
The most common type of cable is unshielded
twisted pair (UTP), which is similar to the
round telephone wire found in your home.
UTP can carry signals up to 100 meters without
too much trouble. Other types of cable can carry
signals for longer distances.
About LAN

• It is defined as interconnection between two


different computers
• It requires both H/W and S/W
• H/W consists of cables and interfaces
• S/W consists of Management of the files
and communication systems.
Advantages of LAN
• To share expensive resources
• to provide security for programs and data
• expand PC usage
• distributed processing
• electronic mail
• data base management
• S/W cost saving
Every LAN System Provides
• Compatibility
• Internetworking
• It provides Sharing of data
files,programs,electronic mail,peripherals
like printer,plotter.
• Disk storage
Hardware Components
• File Server
• Personal Computer Or Nodes
• NIC ( Network Interface Card)
• Co-axial Cable
• Connector (RJ-45)
What Is a Topology?
• The topology of a network refers to the way
in which all of its pieces have been
connected. That is, it refers to the layout of
the computers, printers, and other equipment
hooked to the network in the building
• Network's topology is also a function of the
way in which the cabling is organized
Type of LAN Network Topology

• Linear Bus topology


• Ring topology
• Star topology
• Tree topology
• Mesh topology
Linear Bus

Linear Bus networks use a


common backbone
to connect all devices.
A single cable, the
Backbone functions as a shared communication medium, that
devices attach or tap into with an interface connector.
Advantage and Disadvantage
Advantage:
The bus topology is very reliable, because if any
node on the bus network fails, the bus itself is
NOT affected, and the remaining nodes can
continue to operate without interruption.
Disadvantage:
The bus topology is that generally there must
be a minimum distance between workstations
to avoid signal interference.
Ring

In a ring network, every device


has exactly two neighbors for
communication purposes.
All messages travel through a
ring in the same direction
(effectively either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure
in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the
entire network.
Advantage and Disadvantage
• Advantage:
Not appreciated.

• Disadvantage:
- If one of the system fails, complete system collapse.
- Ring topologies is the extreme difficulty of adding new workstations
while the network is in operation. Normally, the entire network has
to be brought down while a new node is added and cabling reattached.
Star
Many home networks use the
star topology. A star network
features a central connection
point called a "hub" that may
be an actual hub or a switch.
Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted
Pair (UTP) Ethernet.
Advantage and Disadvantage
• Advantage:
The network administrator can give selected nodes a higher priority
status than others. The central computer looks for signals from these
higher priority workstations before recognizing other nodes. Also, the
star topology permits centralized diagnostics (troubleshooting) of all
functions.
• Disadvantage:
Of all the topologies, the star is the least reliable because it has a
single point of failure. The network relies mainly on the central
computer for all functions. If it fails, all nodes also stop functioning,
resulting in failure of the entire network.
Any-to-Any Connectivity
Interoperability is the goal of any mixed-vendor network.
– The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has
developed a set of 100 or so documents called IEEE 802.x
specifications which define many aspects of LAN operations.
– The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has issued thousands
of Requests For Comments (RFC) that identify interoperability
problems and offer technical solutions.
– The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has
defined a communications framework known as the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model, which divides LAN functions into
several layers of protocol.
– While the OSI model is no longer a defacto industry standard, it
remains useful as a tool for identifying the function of new
protocols.
OSI model
• The Open System Interconnection (OSI)
reference model was released in 1984 by the
ISO
• It provided vendors with a set of standards
that ensured greater compatibility and
interoperability among various network
technologies produced by companies around
the world.
• Considered the best tool for teaching people
about sending and receiving data on a
network.
OSI layers
• The OSI model explains how packets travel
through the various layers to another device on a
network:
– It breaks network communication into smaller, more
manageable parts.
– It standardizes network components to allow multiple
vendor development and support.
– It allows different types of network hardware and
software to communicate with each other.
– It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other
layers.
– It divides network communication into smaller parts to
make learning it easier to understand
OSI Model
Seven Layer Architecture
• Physical Layer
• Data link Layer
• Network Layer
• Session Layer
• Transport Layer
• Presentation Layer
• Application Layer
Function of each layer
1 Physical layer
• Cabling standard
2 Data link layer
• Data in to Frames,Packets and control
Information.
3 Network layer
• Concern with packet switching.
4 Transport layer
• Error recognition and recovery as well as
multiplexing of messages.
• Regulation of information flow
5 Session layer
• Password recognition, n/w monitoring and n/w
management functions.
6 Presentation layer
• File transfer, n/w security
7 Application layer
• Electronic mail,Database Managers.
Message Transmission Using Layers
sender receiver

Applications Applications

A receiving layer
wraps incoming
message with an
envelope A receiving layer
• Adds layer removes the
layer related
related
envelope and
addressing
forwards the
information
message up
Client Application Server Application

Application Data Data Application

Presentation Encoded Encoded Presentation

Session Logs on to remote Session


machine

Acknowledgment
Transport En co ded En co ded Transport
Transport packets

Network En co ded En co ded Network


d d
Network packets

Data Link E n c o de d E n c o de d Data Link


Frames

Physical Physical

Fig. OSI 7 layer model


TCP/IP model
• The U.S. DoD created the TCP/IP reference model, because
it wanted to design a network that could survive any
conditions, including a nuclear war.
• TCP/IP was developed as an open standard
TCP/IP
• IP can be thought to point the way for the packets,
while TCP provides a reliable transport
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. It maintains
a dialogue between source and destination
TCP/IP model

Handles issues of representation, encoding, and dialog


control

Handles quality of service issues of reliability, flow control,


and error correction.
Divides TCP segments into packets and send them from any
network. Best path determination and packet switching

host-to-network layer, concerned with all of the components,


both physical and logical, that are required to make a
physical link.
Function of TCP/IP
It provides
• Remote Logins
• Remote File Transfer
• Electronic Mail
It handles
• Error in transmission
• Routing of information
• Delivery of data
TELNET= Remote Login
FTP=File Transfer Protocol
SMTP= Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
X = X windows System
Kerberose = Security
DNS = Domain Name System
ASN = Abstract Syntax Notation
SNMP = Simple Network Management Protocol
NFS = Network File Server
RPC = Remote Procedure Calls
TFTP = Trivial File Transfer Protocol
TCP = Transmission Control Protocol
UDP = User Data gram Protocol
IP = Internet Protocol
ICMP = Internet Control Message Protocol
Telnet = Provides Remote Login capability

FTP = Enables to copy file from one system to another

SMTP = Use for transferring electronic mail

Kerberose = It is widely supported security protocol, it uses


application called “Authentication Server” to
validate Password.

DNS = Enables a computer with a common name to be


converted to a unique physical address.

SNMP = Provides status messages and problem report


across a network to an administrators.
SNMP uses “UDP” as a transport Mechanism

NFS = Is a set of Protocols to enable multiple machines to


access each other’s directory transparently.

RPC = It is a set of functions that enable an application to


Communicate with another machine ( the server).
It also provides programming functions,return codes
and predefined variables to support ‘Distributed
Computing’.
TFTP = It is simple protocol that lacks security.
It uses UDP as a transport. It perform same task as
FTP but uses different transport protocol.
TCP = It provides reliable transfer of data.
UDP = It is connectionless-oriented protocol meaning that it
does not provide for retransmission of data
gram(Unlike TCP, which is connection- oriented)

IP = Responsible for moving the packets of data assembled


by either TCP or UDP across network.
It uses a set of unique addresses for every device on
the network to determine routing and destination.

ICMP = ( Internet Control Message Protocol)


Responsible for checking and generating messages
on the status of devices on n/w.
It can be used to inform other devices of a failure in
one particular machine.
ICMP & IP usually work together.
Comparing TCP/IP with OSI
Similarities:
– both have layers
– both have application
layers, though they
include very different
services
– both have comparable
transport and network
layers
– packet-switched
technology is assumed
– networking professionals
need to know both
Comparing TCP/IP with OSI
Differences:
• TCP/IP combines the presentation
and session layer into its
application layer
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data
link and physical layers
• TCP/IP has fewer layers
• TCP/IP protocols are the standards
around which the Internet
developed, so the TCP/IP model
gains credibility just because of its
protocols. Networks aren't built on
the OSI protocol, even though the
OSI model is used as a guide.
Peer-to-peer communications
• For data to travel from the source to the destination,
each layer of the OSI model at the source must
communicate with its peer layer at the destination.
This is called peer-to-peer communication
• The protocols of each layer exchange information,
called protocol data units (PDUs)
• Each layer depends on the service function of the
OSI layer below it. Ex:
– Transport layer deals with segments
– Network layer encapsulates segments into packets
– Data Link layer encapsulates packets into frames
– Physical layer converts frames to bit streams
Peer-to-peer communications
Conversion steps to encapsulate
Data

• Build the data


• Package the data for end-to-end transport
• Add the network IP address to the header
• Add the data link layer header and trailer
• Convert to bits for transmission
Detailed encapsulation process
• If one computer (host A) wants to send data to
another computer (host B), the data is packaged
through a process called encapsulation
• As the data packet moves down through the layers of
the OSI model, it receives headers, trailers, and other
information.
Encapsulation
Modem Modem

Telephone Line
Telephone Line
What is a Wide Area Network?
• Links Different Locations • Can be Virtual (use Internet to
within Your Own Organization create VPN)
• Similar to LAN but slower and • Bridge between two or more
over greater distances LANs

PC PC Printer PC
Server

PC PC Printer PC
Server
What are Hubs?
• A hub is the active element which turns a collection of
wires into a network. It is the “hub” of a network. Most
common for modern networks is a “Star Topology”
What are Switches?
• A switch is an active element much like a hub. However, the
entire “bandwidth” is available on every port, rather than
being shared among the ports. Think of a hub as a “party-
line” phone, whereas a switch represents Direct-inbound-dial.

A 24-port 10/100
Mbs switch is
nominally
24 x 10 x 2 faster
than a 24-port
10BaseT hub
Networking and
Internetworking
Devices, Backbone
Networks
Hubs and Routers

What is a hub?
– A hub acts as a multiport repeater
– anything it receives on one port is repeated to all other ports
– the network is analogous to a party line
What is a router?
– A router acts as a traffic cop. Each message is only broadcast over
the network segment that it has permission to travel over.
– A router allows you to segment the network, this reduces the
number of devices on a network segment
What are Routers?
• A router is a specialized, dedicated device for connecting
local area networks together into internets (e.g., from
Ethernet LAN to T1 WAN). It sends each packet of data to
the right location.

To The Internet
To Accounting

To Sales
Networking devices are used to construct networks.

• Example: A local area Network (LAN) may need to cover more


distance that its media can handle effectively. In this case, you
can use a repeater to regenerate the signal.
• Internetworking devices are used to connect networks.

• Example: If you want to link a LAN into an internet, you


need an internetworking device as a Router or a
Gateway.

• An internet is an interconnection of individual networks.


Connecting Devices and the OSI Model
Connecting Devices
Connecting Devices

Repeaters
Hubs

Bridges

Two-Layer Switches
Connecting devices
Repeaters
• A repeater (or regenerator) is an electronic device that
operates on only the physical layer of the OSI model.
• A repeater installed on a link receives the signal before it
becomes too weak or corrupted, regenerates the original
pattern, and puts the refreshed copy back on the link.
Repeaters
• A repeater does not actually connect two LANS; it connects
two segments of the same LAN.

• A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability.


Bridges

• Bridges operate in both the physical and the data link


layers of the OSI model.
Bridges
• Bridges can divide a large network into smaller segments. They
contain logic that allows them to keep the traffic on each segment
separate. When a frame (or packet) enters a bridge, the bridge not only
regenerates the signal but checks the destination address and forwards
the new copy only to the segment the address belong.
Bridges
• A bridge operates in both the physical and the data link layers.
• As a physical layer device, it regenerates the signal it
receives.
• As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the physical
address (source and destination) contained in the frame.
• A bridge has filtering capability. It can check the destination
address of a frame and decide if the frame should be
forwarded or dropped. If the frame is to be forwarded, the
decision must specify the port.
• A bridge does not change the physical addresses in a frame.
• A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.
Bridge
Types of Bridges

• To select between segments, a bridge must have a look-up


table that contains the physical addresses of every station
connect to it. The table indicate to which segment each
station belongs.
Simple Bridge
• The address table must be entered manually, before a
simple bridge can be used.
• Whenever a new station is added or removed, the table
must modified.
• Installation and maintenance of simple bridges are time-
consuming and potentially more trouble than the cost
savings are worth.
Types of Bridges
Multiport bridges
A multiport bridge can be used to connect more than two
LANs.
Types of Bridges
Transparent Bridge
A transparent, or learning, bridge builds its table of station
addresses on its own as it performs its bridge functions.
Transparent Bridges

• A transparent bridge is a bridge in which the stations are


completely unaware of the bridge’s existence.
• If a transparent bridge is added or removed from the
system, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary.
• A transparent bridge must meet three criteria:

1. Frames must be forwarded from one station to another.

2. The forwarding table is automatically made by learning frame


movements in the network.
Learning Bridge
Source Routing

Another solution to prevent loops in LANs connected by


bridges is source routing. In this method, the source of the
packet defines the bridges and the LANs through which the
packet should go before reaching the destination.
Routers
• Routers have access
to network layer
addresses and contain
software that enables
them to determine
which of several
possible paths
between those
addresses is the best
for a particular
transmission.
• Routers operate in the
physical, data link,
and network layers of
the OSI model.
• Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected
networks. They route packets from one network to any of a
number of potential destination networks on an internet.
Gateways
• Gateways potentially operate in all seven layers of the OSI
model.
Gateways
• A gateway is a protocol converter. A router by itself
transfers, accepts, and relays packets only across networks
using similar protocols.
A gateway can accept a packet formatted for one protocol
(e.g. AppleTalk) and convert it to a packet for another
protocol (e.g. TCP/IP).
Gateways
• A gateway is generally software installed within a router.
The gateway understands the protocols used by each
network linked into the router and is therefore able to
translate from one to another.
Backbone Networks

• A backbone network allows several LANs to be


connected.
• In a backbone network, no station is directly connected to
the backbone; the stations are part of a LAN, and the
backbone connects the LANs.
• The backbone itself is a LAN.
• The two most common architectures are the bus backbone
and the star backbone.
Bus backbone
Bus Backbone
• In a bus backbone, the topology of the backbone is a bus.
• Bus backbones are normally used as a distribution
backbone to connect different buildings in an organization.

Star Backbone
• In a star backbone, the topology of the backbone is a star;
the backbone is just a switch.
• Star backbones are mostly used as a distribution backbone
inside a building.
• In a multifloor building usually there is a LAN that serves
each particular floor. A star backbone connects these
LANs.
Star backbone
Physical Wiring Diagram
History of WWW
• In 1980, Web was initially conceived at
CERN .
• A man name “Tim Berners-lee first to
submit its proposal in 1989
• The first WWW computers were created at
CERN (http://www.cern.ch)
• It works on the principle of ‘Server’ and
‘Client’.
Ultimate Customers
Generation of Electricity
Corps of Engineers
Bureau of Reclamation
Supply System

Distribution Residential

Commercial

Substation

Farm

Transmission

BPA SYSTEM
Government

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