Forging new generations of engineers

SOILS
Civil Engineering &
Architecture TM

Unit 4 - Lesson 4.5 - Activity 4.5.1

Soil Testing
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Soil Testing

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 Introduction

Prior to developing a property for a commercial

endeavor, a designer needs to investigate the
soil conditions at the site.
There is no construction material that has both
the physical and engineering properties which
are more variable than soil. Therefore it is highly
desirable to have some information regarding
both the surface and subsurface soil conditions.

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 Soil What is it?
Soils rarely exists as separate
components such as sand or gravel.
Soils contain various particle sizes of
gravel, sand, silt and clay and each
contributes to the characteristics of the
soil.

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 Why Test the Soil???
The knowledge gained from soil testing allows the
engineer to make estimates for:
Bearing Capacity of the soil
Settlements of Foundation ( amount and rate)
Earth Pressure both lateral and vertical
Drainage
These characteristics determine how certain
soils behave as a construction material.

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 What is Needed to Determine
Soil Properties

Site Plan
Site Profile (Contour Map)
Geological Information (USGS Maps)
Soils Sample Data(obtained through soils
analysis/testing)

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 Factors to be taken into consideration
when determining the type of the building
foundations:
Function of the structure
Loads from the structure
Bearing capacity of foundation material
Total and differential settlement of foundation
Uplift forces acting on the foundation
Costs

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The Soil Bearing Capacity needs
to be determined before a
foundation system can be
designed. This can be determined
by:
Local or State Building Codes
Uniform Building Code (UBC)
Soil testing/analysis
Site inspection and simple soil
testing methods ( surface soils- top
1 foot)
Soil borings taken at proposed 9
foundation locations (subsurface
 Sample Soils

Soil testing must be done on soil samples that truly

represent the the soil at the site.
Soil sample about 1-2 below surface
Boring samples are taken at various locations and
depths below the surface (subsurface) for deep
foundations

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 Soils Testing
Unified Soils Classification System is a method
for for identifying and grouping soils. It was first
developed by Casagrande for military
construction of airfields.
Many soils can be grouped visually with the
USGS with additional tests for grain size and
plasticity required to accurately classify the soil.

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 Unified Soil Classification System
The Unified Soil Classification System is a
rapid method used to determine Simple Grain
Size Analysis and categorizes the soil as
either :
-Coarse-Grained Soils
-Fine Grained Soils
-Highly Organic Soils

Only particles sizes smaller than 3 are

considered in the USC System
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 Coarse vs. Fine Grained Soils

Many soils can be grouped visually with the USGS and

additional tests for grain size and plasticity are required
to accurately classify the soil
Coarse-Grained soils described by grain size
Fine-Grained Soils described on the basis of their
plasticity

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 Sieve Sizes
Gravels range from 3
down to the size of peas

Silt and clay can pass

through the #200 sieve

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 Sieves
#40 sieve ( similar to window screen)

#4 sieve ( squares, similar to hardware cloth )

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 Grain Size
(Gradation)

Gravel Sand
Boulder Cobbles Silt &
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine
Clay

Comparable Size:
>12 312 3 #4 - #10 - #4 #40-#10 #200-#40 <#200

NOTE: Particles finer than fine sand ( #200 sieve) can not be seen by
the naked eye at a distance of 8 inches
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 Gravel Identification
Coarse Gravel from
3 to , a comparable
size Plum or Lemon

Fine Gravel from #4 to , a

comparable size Grape or Pea

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 Gravel Size
Coarse gravel Fine gravel

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Sand Identification
Coarse Sand from #4 to #10, a
comparable size - Rocksalt

Medium Sand from #10 to #40,

a comparable size - Sugar

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 Sand Size
Coarse sand Medium sand

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 Graded Soils
Soils can be defined by how the particle sizes are
distributed within the soils sample.
Well-Graded Soils-have a good representation of all
particle sizes from the largest to smallest
Poorly-Graded Soils- two types
Uniformly-soil particles are nearly the same
size
Gap-Graded- contains both large and small
particles but the graduation continuity is
broken by the absence of some particle sizes

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 Clean vs. Dirty Graded Soils
for Gravel and Sand
If a soil is identified as being Clean it contains little or
no fines (<5%)

If a soil is identified as being Dirty it contains an

appreciable amount of fines ( >12%)
Silty fines
Clayey

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 Soil Designations
The USCS divides soils that have been classified into
the major soil categories by letter symbols, such as:
S for sand
G for gravel
M for silt
C for clay
O for organic
Pt for peat

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Grain
Shape

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 Soil Color
Color can aid in distinguishing soils types
Can vary with moisture content
May indicate the presence of certain chemical or impurities
Dark brown /black may indicate organic material
Gray, olive green indicate inorganic soils
Red or yellow may indicate iron oxides
Gray-blue or gray-yellow indicates poor drainage
White to pink may indicate considerable silica, calcium carbonate, or
aluminum compounds.

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 Plasticity
Plasticity of the soils refers to the varying water content on the
consistency of the soil in fine-grained soils.
This system is sometimes referred to as the ATTERBERG LIMITS,
named after the Swedish scientist who developed this test.
Plastic Limit-lowest moisture content at which soils can be rolled into
1/8 dia.thread with out breaking
Liquid Limit- minimum moisture content at which soil will flow when a
small shear or cutting force is applied

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 Soils Groups
Soil Type Gradation Liquid Limit

Gravel- G Well Graded- W LL over 50- H

Sand-S Poorly Graded - P LL under 50 -L
Silt-M
Clay-C
Organic O
Peat- Pt

These letters are then used in combination to

form the soils groups 27
 Determining the Silt or Clay
Characteristics of Fine Grained Soil
In addition to the Sieve Analysis the
following tests will be done to determine of
the Fine Grained soils
Dry Strength- crushing characteristics
Dilatancy- reaction to shaking
Toughness- consistency near plastic limit

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 Unified Soil Classification System

Start here

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 Equipment for Testing
Sample of soil about the size of a coffee can and
collected below the top soil horizon (about 1 to 2
feet).
2 mason jars with tops
5 gallon pail
Water
Mixing bowl
A 2 x 2 metal pan and rubber mallet
Sieve collection, ASTM No 4 and ASTM No.
40Bottom sieve pan and cover
Triple-beam balance or Digital Scale
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 Testing

USCS SYSTEM SEIVE ANALYSIS

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 Weigh each sieve
separately

Weigh mason
jars for later use

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 Soils Sampling
Take a representative
soil sample from the
property
A shovelful or coffee
can of soil should be
enough

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Soil sample should be
dry
Pulverize the soil with
a rubber mallet

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Continue to Pulverize
the soil with your
hands
Be sure that all small
and large clumps are
completely broken
apart.

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Stack sieves with
Number 4 on top, then
the Number 40 sieve
below that, and then
finally the bottom pan.

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Place soil in Number 4
sieve, place cover on top
and shake vigorously.

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Shaking the Soil
Sieves
Shake with up and
downward motion
or / and
Shake with side to
and side motion
Shake vigorously.

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 Weighing of each Sieve with Sample
Particles
Weigh the sample material
and the sieve.

Subtract the weight of the

sieve to obtain weight of
soil. In this case , the
weight of the particles is
the Gravel fraction in the
soil sample

Do this for each sieve.

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#4 Sieve with Gravel

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 #4O Sieve with Sand

Record and subtract the

weight of the No.40 sieve
only (i.e., without the soil
sample). The difference is
the coarse and medium
grained SAND fraction in
the soil sample.

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 Bottom pan with Fines

Weigh the bottom pan

and its contents. Record
and subtract the weight
of the empty pan. The
difference is the fine
SAND, SILT, and CLAY
fraction of the soil
sample.

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 Relative Particle Sizes

#4 sieve #40 sieve 43

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 Sieve Analysis Results
USCS Classification for Coarse Grained Soils
Coarse-grained soil, also called granular soil has more
than half of the soil grains visible to the naked eye.
If the percentage of GRAVEL and SAND is greater than
50%, then the soil is a granular soil.
If the soil is predominantly coarse-grained, identify the
soil sample as being gravel or sand by estimating
whether 50% or more, by weight, of the coarse grains
(GRAVEL and SAND) are larger or smaller than the No 4
sieve size.

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 USCS Classification for Fine Grained Soils
Fine-grained soils, also called cohesive soils contain
greater than 50% SILT and CLAY particles.
It is classified further into either SILT or CLAY and them
determined if it is high or low plasticity by estimating its
dry strength (crushing characteristics), dilatancy
(reaction to shaking), and toughness (consistency near
the plastic limit)
Individual fine- grains are not visible to the naked eye

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Determining the Fine Grained Sand Fraction of Soil

Place the contents of the

bottom pan from the sieve test
in a Mason jar.
Weigh and Record results
Fill jar with water so that I
it is full
Shake jar with lid on and let
the fine sand settle 5 to 10
seconds
Drain off

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 Determining the Fine Grained -
Sand, Silt and Clay fraction of the soil sample

Pour off the dirty

water, be careful not
to spill any of the
soils at the bottom of
jar
Repeat the shake,
settle and drain off
procedure several
times
Repeat until water is
clear

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 Determining the weight of Silt and Clay in Soil
Sample
Place the Mason jar, without top, and the
contents into the oven and dry.
Weigh the jar and contents. Record the weight
and subtract the weight of the empty jar. The
difference is the fine grained SAND fraction in
the soil sample.

Determine the weight of SILT and CLAY in the

soil sample
Determine the percentage of Silt and Clay in the
soil sample 49
 Dilatancy Test
Dilatancy is the reaction to wet shaking
Prepare a pat of moist soils approximately
3/4 in3 in size
Add water, if necessary, to make soil soft
but not sticky, like soft putty
Place pat in open palm of hand
Shake horizontally, striking with other
hand several times

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 Dilatancy Test
Observe rapidity of water rising to the surface when
sample is shaken and when the sample is squeezed
between fingers
Speed of appearance during shaking and disappearance
when squeezed assists in identifying the fines in the
sample
If sample become soft and glossy when shaking and
then become hard, dull and forms crack when squeezed
between the fingers , it has a reaction to shaking, or
dilatancy

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 Dilatancy Test Results

Very clean sands give the quickest and

most distinct reaction ( S)
Rapid reaction, sample is silt ( M)
No reaction indicates clay ( C)

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 Toughness Test
Effect of Water on Fine-Grained Soils

A method of testing the plasticity of the soil is referred to as

the Toughness Test.
Water is added to the fines portion of the soils sample
( those particles that passed the No. 40 sieve) and the
sample is then rolled into a 3mm ( 1/8) diameter thread.

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Toughness Test
Mixing about a 100 cm3
( 1/3 cup of the soil that
passed through the No. 40
sieve) with water. Mixture
should be the consistency of
putty

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 Toughness (Thread Test)
Roll out specimen on a smooth
surface until it is approx. 1/8
in diameter.
Fold and re-roll thread
repeatedly
Soil samples moisture content
will gradually be reduced
Thread breaks and sample
becomes lumped
Continue until lumps crumble

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 Toughness Test Results
The toughness of the thread that forms when the
soil is rolled will identity the fines as either silt or clay.

Inability to form thread or very weak thread indicates a

plastic silt (ML)
Weak spongy thread indicates silt (either organic or
inorganic) with a high liquid limit and a low low-plasticity
(MH)
Firm thread indicates low-plasticity clay (CL)
Tough thread indicates highly plastic clay ( CH)

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 Dry Strength
Form a moist pat of
approximately 2-3 in diameter
and thick
Allow to dry with low heat
The crushing characteristic of
the soil sample will be
evaluated after this sample is
completely dry.

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 Dry Strength Test and Results

Dry strength is a measure of the character

and quality of colloidal fraction of soil.
Break dry pat sample between thumb
and index finger

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 Dry Strength Test Results

Breakage Easy Silt

Breakage Difficult - Inorganic Clays of
low to medium plasticity
Breakage Impossible- Inorganic Clays
of high plasticity

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Soils Test Results for Fine Grained Soils

Soils Type

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 Soils Types for Foundations

Sand and Gravel Best

Medium to hard Clays- Good
Soft Clay and Silt- Poor
Organic Silts and Clays- Undesirable
Peat- No Good - Avoid

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 Soil Bearing Capacities
Soil Type Allowable Bearing Drainage
(lb/ft 2)
BEDROCK 4,000 to 12,000 Poor
GRAVELS 3,000 Good
GRAVELS w/ FINES 3,000 Good
SAND 2,000 Good
SAND W/ FINES 2,000 Good
SILT 1,500 Medium
CLAYS 1,500 Medium
ORGANICS 0 to 400 Poor 62
 Soil Preparation
What is the site has poor soils, is there
anything that can be done?

If the soils at the site are not suitable to

carry the foundation loads, the site may
have to be prepared using some of the
following methods

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 Soils Preparations for foundations if soil is
undesirable

Compaction of the soil- increase the density of the soils

and therefore increases the bearing capacity of the soil.
Compaction of the soils is down by rolling the soils
Bring in Engineered Fill, must remove old soils first
Blasting to remove rock or soil

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 Soil Types and Properties

Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1953). The unified soil classification
system. U.S. Army Technical Memorandum, No.3-357. 65
66
 Soil Description
Color: Dark Brown to White
Grain size, including estimated maximum grain size is
an estimated percent by weight of fines (material
passing the No. 200 sieve) :
Coarse-grained soils, maximum particle size 2,
estimating 60 percent gravel, 36 percent sand,
and 4 percent passing the #200 seive,
Gradation: Poorly-graded, insufficient fine gravel
Grain shape:Gravel particles well rounded

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 Soils Description (continued)
Plasticity: Nonplastic
Predominant type: Predominantly gravel
Secondary components: Considerable sand and trace
amounts of nonplastic fines(silt)
Classification symbol : GP ( Poorly Graded Gravel and sandy gravel
mixture with little or no fines)
Other remarks, such as organic, chemical, or metallic content;
compactness; consistency; cohesiveness near PL; dry strength and
source
No dry strength, dense in undisturbed states

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 References:
Sowers, G.F. (1979). Introductory Soil Mechanics and
Foundations: Geotechnical Engineering,New York, NY:
Macmillan Publishing
Lindeburg, M. R. (1994). Civil Engineering_Reference
Manual (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Professional
Publications, Inc.
GGuthrie, P. (2003). Architects portable handbook: First
step rules of thumb for building design. NY: McGraw-Hill.

Unified Soil Classification

http://www.hydro.unr.edu/homepages/benson/classes/hydr
o/uscs.html
August 2004 69
 References (continued):
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1953). The Unified Soil
Classification System. U.S. Army Technical
Memorandum, No.3-357.
US Army Unified Soil Classification System. [On-line].
Available:
http://www.adtdl.army.mil/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/5-472/apb.pdf
(August 5, 2004)

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Credits:
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