Section 3.

Finishing

Rev. 4
8/20/01
 Overview
Machining Fundamentals
Surface Finishing
Secondary Processing Discontinuities

Acoustic Emission 2
Part 1 Machining
Fundamentals
 Machining
Most universally used and the most important
of all manufacturing processes.
Is a shape-producing process in which a
power driven device causes material to be
removed in chip form.
Preferred method for producing one or a few
parts.
Capable of high accuracies and surface
finishes.
 Machining Fundamentals
Based on the fact that one material can
be harder and stronger than another.
If the harder material is properly shaped, it
can be called a tool.
When the tool is brought into contact with a
weaker workpiece with sufficient force,
failure results in the workpiece.
The loading is controlled in machining as to
produce only localized failure in the
workpiece.
Machining Fundamentals

C H IP TO O L

SHEAR
ANG LE

W O R K P IE C E
RESULTANT R E G IO N O F M A X IM U M
FO RCE SHEAR STRESS
 Chip Formation
A cutting tool is merely a device for
applying external loads to the work
material.
If a tool is strong enough, and the work
is rigid enough to resist deflection away
from the tool, a chip will be produced by
the relative motion between the two.
 Chip Formation
The applied load may be broken down
into two forces:
A force perpendicular to the tool face
(normal force); and
A force along the tool face (friction force).
As shear stresses reach a critical limit
for the work, plastic flow and ultimately,
fracture failure will occur.
 Chip Formation
Chip Types
Segments,
Continuous, and
Intermittent.
Regardless of the type of chip produced
during machining, force must be used
and energy expended resulting in
material deformation and heat
formation.
 Cutting Tool Materials
The requirements for a satisfactory
cutting tool material are:
That it be harder and stronger than the
material it is to cut;
That it be abrasion resistant to reduce
wear; and
That it be able to maintain the properties at
the temperatures to which it will be
exposed.
 Cutting Tool Materials
The principal difference between
tool materials is their ability to
maintain hardness and strength at
elevated temperatures.
 Cutting Tool Materials
Common Materials:
Carbon Tool Steel
High Speed Steel
Cast Nonferrous Alloys
Cemented Carbides
Ceramics/Cermets
Diamonds
Coated Tool Materials
 Abrasives
Used as wheels, sticks, or stones, or in
free form.
May consist of:
Aluminum Oxide,
Silicon Oxide,
Diamond, or
Boron Cubic Nitride.
 Machining Tools
Equipment designed to hold a cutting
tool and workpiece and establish a
suitable set of motions between them to
remove material in chip form.
 Machining Tools
5 basic types of Equipment:
Turning and Boring
Drilling
Straight Line Machines
Grinding
Production Equipment
 Machinability
Used to describe the the relative ease at
which any material may be machined.
Considerations:
Finish,
Power Consumption, and
Tool life.
 Numerical Control
Numerical control (N/C) systems are
auxiliary machine control equipment.
Consists of storing information in the
form of numbers and supplying that
information in proper order to the
machine to cause the machine to go
through some predetermined cycle of
operation.
 Chipless Machining
Have the general appearance and
general design features of conventional
machine tools.
Failure is produced chemically or
thermally, rather than mechanically.
 Chipless Machining
Processes include:
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
Chemical Milling
Ultrasonic Machining
Other methods
Part 2 Surface Finishing
 Surface Finishing
Products frequently require some type
of surface finishing to enable them to
satisfactorily fulfill their function.
May be performed to:
ensure proper fit-up,
remove burrs and sharp corners that may
be harmful in later use, and/or
for corrosion protection.
 Casehardening of Steels
Some products applications require
surface properties of hardness and
strength to resist penetration under high
pressure and to provide maximum wear
properties.
Casehardening involves a change in
surface properties to produce a hard,
wear resistant shell about a tough,
fracture resistant core.
 Casehardening of Steels
May be more satisfactory than through
hardening in cases where a low cost,
low carbon steel with a hard shell may
be used.
Often suitable for heavy sections that
would require very special alloy steels
for through hardening to be effective.
 Carburizing
Performed on low alloy or plain low
carbon steels.
Material is heated above its critical
temperature and held in the presence of
excess carbon, supplied in a gas, liquid, or
solid environment.
Typically followed by quenching, returning
the materials to its critical temperature,
quenching, and tempering.
 Flame hardening
The case is produced by selectively
heating part or all of the surface above
the critical temperature.
The depth of hardness is controlled by:

The temperature to which the material is

raised
The rate of heating
The time to quenching
 Cleaning
Most products require some type of
cleaning to be useable.
Dependent upon a number of factors:
Cost
Convenience in handling
Improvement in appearance
Elimination of foreign materials
Establishment of a chemically clean
surface
 Cleaning Methods
Liquid and vapor baths
Blasting
Abrasive barrel finishing
Wire brushing
 Polishing
Generally interpreted to mean any non-
precision procedure providing a glossy
surface:
Polishing (surface blending)
Buffing
Electropolishing
 Coatings
Typically used to:
Improve Appearance (smoothness, color,
etc.).
Improve Properties (Wear resistance,
corrosion resistance, etc).
Increase or decrease of coefficient of
friction.
 Coatings
Coatings can consist of:
Paints
Varnish
Enamel
Lacquers
Vitreous (porcelain) enamels
 Coatings
Metallizing
Process in which metal wire is fed into an
oxyacetylene heating flame and then, after
melting, is carried by high velocity air to be
impinged against the work surface.
Bonding action is mostly mechanical, and
metal spraying is usually done on surfaces
that have been roughened to aid
attachment.
 Coatings
Vacuum Metallizing
Usually used for reflective or decorative
purposes.
Metal is vaporized in a high vacuum
chamber containing parts to be coated.
The metal vapor condenses on the
exposed surfaces in a thin film that follows
the surface pattern.
 Coatings
Hot dip plating
Zinc, tin, and lead are applied to steel for
corrosion protection.
Material is immersed in molten plating
metal.
 Coatings
Electroplating
Electrical and chemical system used to
deposit thin coatings of copper, nickel,
chromium, cadmium, zinc, tin, silver, and
gold.
May use multiple metals for maximum
properties.
 Chemical Conversions
Methods of converting some of the
surface material to a chemical
composition the resists attack from the
environment.
Includes:
Anodizing,
Chromate Coatings,
Phosphate coatings, and
Chemical oxide coatings.
 Part 3 Secondary
Processing Discontinuities
 Secondary Processing
Discontinuities
Discontinuities that originate from
grinding, heat treating, machining,
plating and related finishing operations.
Such discontinuities may be the most
costly because all previous processing
costs are lost when the component is
diverted from service.
 Secondary Processing
Discontinuities
Grinding Cracks
Cause: Localized overheating of the material due
to improper grinding procedures.
Location: Surface- usually occur in groups at right
angles
Heat Treating Cracks
Cause: Uneven heating or cooling.
Location: Surface.
 Secondary Processing
Discontinuities
Quench Cracks
Cause: Sudden cooling from elevated
temperatures.
Location: Surface.
Plating Cracks
Cause: Residual stresses being relieved.
Location: Surface.