and Society in the 19th Century 1. Industrial Revolution First in England, later the world. James Watt's improvements to the steam engine and its subsequent application to manufacturing in the late 18th and early 19th century resulted in a major societal shift. Traditionally manual laborers learned their trade by progressing through stages of apprenticeship under a master craftsman. The new steam engine driven machines replaced the craftsmen system with faster and cheaper production but often greatly inferior results. The critical eye and artistry of the craftsman was sacrificed for speed. The worker now served the machine, feeding it raw materials, allowing it to determine the final product. James Watt's memperbaharui mesin uap - dan aplikasi berikutnya untuk manufaktur pada akhir abad 18 dan awal abad ke-19-menghasilkan perubahan besar di masyarakat. Buruh Manual tradisional mempelajari perdagangan mereka dengan maju melalui tahap magang di bawah empu. Mesin uap yang baru digerakkan mesin digantikan sistem pengrajin dengan lebih cepat dan produksi yang lebih murah tapi kualitas hasil seringkali jauh lebih rendah. Mata yang detail dan artistik dari pengrajin dikorbankan untuk kecepatan. Pekerja sekarang melayani mesin, bahan baku memberinya makan, sehingga memungkinkannya untuk menentukan produk akhir. Tradesmen and agricultural workers displaced by newly mechanized or improved farming methods flocked to cities to seek work in factories. The lives of the laborers declined as factory owners treated their workers as if they were commodities and not human beings. Lowly paid men, women and children worked 12 hour days in deplorable conditions. The new arrivals settled in cheaper areas of the city often dangerous and disease-ridden slums. Pedagang dan pekerja pertanian digantikan oleh mekanik baru atau perbaikan metode pertanian berbondong-bondong ke kota untuk mencari pekerjaan di pabrik. Kehidupan para buruh tidak diperlakukan dengan baik oleh pemilik pabrik. mereka seakan-akan komoditas dan bukan manusia. Dibayar rendah: pria, wanita dan anak-anak bekerja 12 jam hari dalam kondisi menyedihkan. Pendatang baru menetap di daerah kumuh pinggiran kota- mereka sering diserang penyakit yang berbahaya. Numerous critics of this new industrialized society advocated for the rights of workers and the return to a connection between the individual craftsman and their work.
Banyak kritik dari masyarakat pada industri baru ini.
Mereka berusaha mengadvokasi hak-hak pekerja dan mengembalikan hubungan antara individu pengrajin dengan pekerjaan mereka. 2. Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations 1851 London, England (Also known as the Crystal Palace Exhibition) the Crystal Palace Exhibition Awash with pride and profits from the Industrial Revolution the English upper class, spearheaded by Prince Albert (husband of Queen Victoria) organized a showcase for modern industrial technology and design. England and a number of invited countries displayed their achievements in four categories: Raw Materials, Machinery, Manufacturers and Fine Arts. Dipenuhi kebanggaan dan keuntungan dari Revolusi Industri Inggris kelas atas, dipelopori oleh Pangeran Albert (suami Ratu Victoria) diselenggarakanlah pameran teknologi industri modern dan desain. Inggris dan sejumlah negara diundang untuk memamerkan prestasi mereka dalam empat kategori: Bahan Baku, Mesin, Produsen, dan Seni Murni. The exhibition was a popular success but the critical reviews were not complementary of the exhibitors. Critics found the work created by industrialized methods to be shoddy and poorly designed, full of superfluous ornaments that did not enhance the product. The Victorian propensity for over-decoration and a hodgepodge of unrelated styles was seen as symptomatic of a tasteless and over-capitalistic society. Ornamentation has fallen in and out of favor over time. To read an interesting article on ornamentation check Alice Twemlow's "The Decriminalization of Ornament" in which she discusses the recent surge of ornamentation in graphic design and the inevitable connection between form, content and ornament." Ornamentasi telah gagal dan tidak disukai dari waktu ke waktu. Untuk itu baca sebuah artikel menarik tentang ornamentasi: Alice Twemlow "The Decriminalization of Ornament", di mana ia membahas gelombang baru ornamen dalam desain grafis dan hubungan yang tak terelakkan antara bentuk, isi dan ornamen. " 3. The Grammar of Ornament Owen Jones, 1856 In response to the call for better quality design, Owen Jones published an exhaustive inventory of international and historical decorative styles. Printed in colorful lithographs, the book includes 20 sections of illustrated motifs and Jones's 37 Propositions on what makes good design." Modern, scientific and devoid of deliberate historicism, operating by principles to create an ornament for every kind of decoration." (Jespersen, 2008) Dalam menanggapi panggilan untuk kualitas desain yang lebih baik , Owen Jones menerbitkan sebuah inventaris lengkap Sejarah internasional tentang gaya dekoratif. Dicetak dalam warna-warni litograf, kitab ini mencakup 20 bagian bergambar motif dan 37 usulan Jone untuk membuat desain yang baik. "Modern, ilmiah dan bersejarah, beroperasi dengan prinsip-prinsip untuk menciptakan ornamen untuk setiap jenis dekorasi." (Jespersen, 2008) John Ruskin England, 1819 1900 Born to wealth, John Ruskin was an author, poet and art critic whose socialist convictions were strong enough to cause him to reject his fortune to fulfill his ideologies. Ruskin's theorized that the Industrial Revolution's division of labor made work monotonous and was the main cause of the unhappiness of the poor. He looked backward to an idealized medieval period, to him it was a paradigm of the union of art in labor in service to society. He romanticized "The organic relationship ... between the worker and his guild, the worker and his community, between the worker and his natural environment, and between the worker and his God." John Ruskin England, 1819 1900 Terlahir kaya raya, John Ruskin adalah seorang penulis, penyair dan kritikus seni berkeyakinan sosialis yang kuat yang menyebabkan dia menolak harta kekayaan untuk memenuhi ideologinya. Ruskin's berteori bahwa Revolusi Industri membuat pembagian kerja yang monoton dan merupakan penyebab utama ketidakbahagiaan orang miskin. Dia memandang ke belakang yakni periode abad pertengahan yang ideal, baginya itu adalah paradigma tentang "penyatuan tenaga kerja dan seni di dalam pelayanan kepada masyarakat." Dia mengkhayalkan "... Sebuah hubungan erat antara pekerja dan serikat, pekerja dan masyarakat , antara pekerja dan lingkungan alam, dan antara pekerja dan Tuhannya. " Ruskin's writings greatly influenced the thinking of Victorian society in a large range of topics. His critical art reviews could make or break the careers of contemporary painters. His strong support of the Pre- Raphaelites, a group of artists who rejected the 'decadence' of the established Royal Academy, gave the group the credibility they needed to be accepted as serious artists. Both Ruskin and the Pre-Raphaelites believed that art should communicate truth not merely in a display of skill but also as expressed by the artist's whole moral outlook. Tulisan Ruskin sangat dipengaruhi pemikiran masyarakat Victoria dalam berbagai macam topik. Ulasan seni yang kritis bisa membuat atau menghancurkan karier pelukis kontemporer. Mendapat dukungan kuat dari Pra-Raphaelite, sekelompok seniman yang menolak 'kemunduran' dari Royal Academy, kelompok ini memberi kredibilitas yg mereka butuhkan untuk dapat diterima sebagai seniman serius. Baik Ruskin dan Pra-Raphaelite percaya bahwa seni harus menyampaikan kebenaran bukan hanya dalam menampilkan keterampilan tetapi juga seperti diungkapkan oleh keseluruhan pandangan moral seniman. William Morris and the Birth of the Arts and Crafts Movement The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood Toward the middle of the 19th century, a small group of young painters in England reacted against what they felt was "the frivolous art of the day." They deeply admired the simplicities of the early 15th century and wanted to bring English art back to a greater "truth to nature." Pra-Raphael Brotherhood. Menjelang pertengahan abad ke-19, sekelompok kecil pelukis muda di Inggris bereaksi terhadap apa yang mereka rasakan sebagai "seni tak keruan." Mereka sangat mengagumi kesederhanaan dari awal abad ke-15 dan ingin membawa seni Inggris kembali kepada "kebenaran alam." While the academy and art historians worshiped Raphael as the great master of the Renaissance, these young students rebelled against what they saw as Raphael's theatricality and the Victorian hypocrisy and pomp of the academic art tradition. The friends decided to form a secret society, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, to emulate Renaissance painting before Raphael developed his grand manner. They adopted a high moral stance that embraced a sometimes unwieldy combination of symbolism and realism, religious or romantic subjects with an insistence on painting everything from direct observation. Meskipun akademi dan sejarawan seni menyembah Raphael sebagai empu Renaisans, para mahasiswa muda memberontak terhadap apa yang mereka lihat sebagai sandiwara Raphael dan kemunafikan Victoria serta kemegahan dari tradisi seni akademis. Mereka memutuskan untuk membentuk sebuah masyarakat rahasia, Persaudaraan Pra-Raphael, untuk meniru lukisan Renaissance sebelum Raphael mengembangkannya dengan cara yang megah. Mereka mengadopsi sikap moral yang tinggi yang menganut kadang-kadang kombinasi simbolisme dan realisme, agama atau romantisme dengan penekanan untuk melukis segala sesuatu dari pengamatan langsung. The model for the painting was Jane Burden, muse for the Pre-Raphaelites who discovered her and proclaimed her to be a perfect example of Renaissance beauty.(She later married William Morris)
Model untuk lukisan ini adalah Jane
Burden. Pra-Raphaelite menemukan dia dan menyatakan dia menjadi contoh sempurna keindahan Renaissance. (Dia kemudian menikah dengan William Morris) William Morris, a wealthy British theology student,"developed an interest in art and literature and a deep love for everything medieval, not only art and design, but also architecture. Morris (and friend Pre-Raphaelite Edward Burne-Jones) joined the gothic revival architectural practice of George Edmund Street. Here they met Philip Webb who was to become a lifelong friend and, together with Webb, they formed the Arts & Crafts movement. William Morris, seorang mahasiswa teologi Inggris kaya, Ia mengembangkan minat dalam seni dan sastra dan Rasa Cinta yang mendalam untuk segala sesuatu di abad pertengahan, tidak hanya seni dan desain, tetapi juga arsitektur. Morris (dan Rekannya di Pra-Raphael: Edward Burne-Jones) bergabung dengan kebangkitan praktek arsitektur gothic George Edmund Street. Di sini mereka bertemu Philip Webb yang akan menjadi teman seumur hidup dan, bersama dengan Webb, mereka membentuk ART & CRAFT MOVEMENT To members of the Arts & Crafts, the Industrial Revolution separated humans from their own creativity and individualism; the worker was a cog in the wheel of progress, living in an environment of shoddy machine- made goods, based more on ostentation than function. These proponents sought to reestablish the ties between beautiful work and the worker, returning to an honesty in design not to be found in mass- produced items. In both Britain and America the movement relied on the talent and creativity of the individual craftsman and attempted to create a total environment." Bagi anggota ART & CRAFT MOVEMENTS , Revolusi Industri memisahkan manusia dari kreativitas dan kepribadiannya; para pekerja seperti roda gigi dalam kemajuan, hidup dalam lingkungan yang buruk dengan barang-barang buatan mesin, yang lebih didasarkan pada gengsi daripada fungsi. Para Pendukung gerakan ini berusaha untuk membangun kembali hubungan antara karya yang indah dengan pekerja, kembali ke kejujuran dalam desain, yang tidak bisa ditemukan jika diproduksi secara massal. Di Britania dan Amerika pergerakan ini bergantung pada bakat dan kreativitas individu pengrajin dan berusaha untuk menciptakan lingkungan yang total. " Morris & Co, 1861
Morris married Jane Burden and moved into his
commissioned home, Red House. Unhappy with the quality of products available for furnishings, Morris worked, along with his friends to create wallpaper, tapestries and furniture demonstrating good craftsmanship and design. At the project's end they joined together to form a business. "He then set up a studio in 1861 with several associates, including architect Philip Webb and English artists Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Edward Burne-Jones. In 1875 he reorganized the partnership into Morris & Co. Morris menikahi Jane Burden dan pindah ke rumah dinas, Red House. Tidak puas dengan kualitas produk yang tersedia untuk perabotannya, Morris bekerja bersama teman-temannya untuk membuat wallpaper, permadani dan perabotan dan menunjukkan keahlian yang baik dalam desain. Pada akhir proyek mereka bergabung bersama untuk membentuk sebuah bisnis. "Ia kemudian mendirikan sebuah studio pada tahun 1861 dengan beberapa rekan, termasuk arsitek Philip Webb dan seniman inggris Dante Gabriel Rossetti dan Edward Burne-Jones. Pada tahun 1875 ia menata ulang kemitraan ke Morris & Co. Morris & Co Morris' designs were realistic. He pulled from the nature around him as did the medieval tapestry artists before him.... using traditional methods, often obtaining dyes from vegetables. He perfected the use of woodblocks for printing wallpaper and textiles. The idea of the house as a total work of art, with all of the interior objects designed by the architect, emerged from this studio and remained standard practice throughout the Arts and Crafts movement." Desain buatan Morris sangat realis. Dia mengambil dari alam sekitarnya seperti yang dilakukan seniman permadani abad pertengahan di hadapannya .... menggunakan metode tradisional, sering mendapatkan pewarna dari sayuran. Dia menyempurnakan penggunaannya untuk mencetak woodblocks wallpaper dan tekstil. Ide rumah sebagai total karya seni, dengan semua benda-benda interior yang dirancang oleh sang arsitek, muncul dari studio ini dan tetap dijadikan praktik standar menyeluruh dari ART & CRAFT MOVEMENT As part of his attempt to reintroduce handmade quality Morris used only natural dyes and hand production processes. His refusal to use modern production techniques meant that his products were only affordable by the rich and therefore anathema to his socialist beliefs." Sebagai bagian dari usahanya untuk memperkenalkan kembali kualitas buatan tangan Morris menggunakan pewarna alami dan proses produksi secara manual. Penolakannya untuk menggunakan teknik produksi modern berarti bahwa produk-produknya hanya terjangkau oleh orang kaya dan karena itu menghujat pada keyakinan sosialis. " "The wallpapers and prints became the height of fashion but Morris realized that he was bound to lose his one man battle against the degradation of capitalist production. Success itself was proof of this. He hated 'spending ... life ministering to the swinish luxury of the rich', and the more involved he became in production the more evidence he found of the injustices and misery caused by exploitation. By the 1870s he had come up against the limits of artistic rebellion. 'What business have we with art unless all can share it?' he asked." Meski wallpaper dan cetakannya telah menjadi mode, Morris menyadari bahwa dia hanyalah seorang laki-laki sendirian yang bertempur melawan degradasi produksi kapitalis. Sukses itu sendiri adalah bukti dari ini. Dia benci 'menghabiskan waktu... melayani orang kaya swinish yang hidup mewah ', dan ia menjadi lebih terlibat dalam produksi sehingga lebih banyak bukti yang dia temukan tentang ketidakadilan dan penderitaan yang disebabkan oleh eksploitasi. Pada tahun 1870-an ia telah menemukan batas aturan terhadap pemberontakan artistik. "Apa urusan kita dengan seni, jika kita tak bisa berbagi? " ia bertanya. " Morris was a socialist and was an active member in the Hammersmith Socialist League. William Morris and the Kelmscott Press "William Morris established the most famous of the private presses, the Kelmscott Press, at Hammersmith in January, 1891. Over the next seven years the press produced 53 books (totaling some 18,000 copies). Kelmscott was the culmination of Morris's life as a craftsman in many diverse fields. The books Morris produced were medieval in design, modeled on his studies of incunabula of the fifteenth century." Morris was fascinated not only with the design of books but wrote a number of books. His fantasy stories were a direct inspiration for C. S. Lewis, The Chronicles of Narnia and influenced Tolkein's,The Lord of the Rings. The Kelmscott Chaucer is considered Morris's masterpiece. 425 copies of the book were completed by a total of 11 master printers. The Type of the Kelmscott Press
Ever consistent in his rejection of industrialized
processes, Morris designed and produced his own typefaces, manufactured his own paper, and printed using a hand press. He set out to prove that the high standards of the past could be repeated - even surpassed - in the present. His books were designed to be read slowly, to be appreciated, to be treasured, and thus made an implicit statement about the ideal relationships which ought to exist between the reader, the text, and the author a statement which we have, by and large, continued to ignore Pernah konsisten dalam penolakan terhadap proses- proses industri, Morris merancang dan memproduksi sendiri tipografi, kertas, dan mencetak menggunakan handpress. Ia ingin membuktikan bahwa standar tinggi dari masa lalu dapat diulang - bahkan melampaui - di masa kini. Buku-bukunya dirancang untuk dibaca perlahan- lahan, untuk dihargai, untuk menjadi bernilai, dan dengan demikian membuat pernyataan implisit tentang hubungan ideal yang seharusnya ada di antara pembaca, teks, dan penulis - suatu pernyataan yang selalu saja terus kita abaikan Troy, Chaucer, Golden Morris's roman 'Golden' type was inspired by the work of the early punch cutter Nicolas Jenson of Venice. The Troy is based upon studies of manuscript blackletter. Please note that the versions shown here are digital recreations of Morris's type. *Remember that digital designers often try to emulate the ink spread and paper surface from historical letterpress work to recreate the character of the original printed type, rather than the actual type design. Noteworthy for their harmony of type and illustration, Morris' main priority was to have each book seen as a whole: this included taking painstaking care with all aspects of production, including the paper, the form of type, the spacing of the letters, and the position of the printed matter on the page. Kelmscott books re- awakened the lost ideals of book design and inspired higher standards of production at a time when the printed page was at its poorest. Patut dicatat keharmonisan antara typografi dan ilustrasi pada karya Morris. Prioritas utama Morris adalah agar sebuah buku dipandang secara menyeluruh: termasuk peduli dengan semua aspek produksi, kertas, bentuk jenis, jarak antara huruf, dan posisi cetakan pada halaman. Buku Kelmscott membangun kembali idealisme yang hilang pada sebuah desain buku dan menginspirasi produksi dengan standar yang lebih tinggi pada saat percetakan mengalami masa sulit. Other Private Presses Inspired by William Morris
Press distinguished itself not only for its high quality of printing but for the rich wood cuts by various artists including Eric Gill. The masterpiece of the Press is the Four Gospels, which used Gill's wood cut illustrations as well as his type face design. Ashendene Press England, 1895 - 1935 Wealthy book publisher St.John Hornby founded this small private press. Most Ashendene editions used a trademark font: Subiaco, which was based on a 15th century semi- humanistic Italian type created by Sweynheim and Pannartz in Subiaco, Italy. The Dove's masterpiece is the Dove's Bible,1903. Stark in comparison to Morris, the text type was cut by Edward Prince (also Morris's punchcutter) in a Jenson style roman; the large red initial letters were by Edward Johnston. Two American Private Presses: Printing and Type Design by Bruce Rogers and Frederic Goudy Bruce Rogers The Riverside Press, 18951912 In 1895 Rogers began work at the Riverside Press in Cambridge, Massachusetts and appointed as head of the department responsible for the production of limited-edition books in 1900. The freedom of constraints on his budget and time allowed the production of some notable books. Bruce Rogers, contribution to a type sample book entitled Peter Piper's Practical Principles of Plain and Perfect Pronunciation, for Mergenthaler Linotype Co. Brooklyn, 1936. Roger's masterpiece, The Bible for Oxford University Press, was completed in 1935. A lectern-sized format, the pages measured 12 x 16 inches. The type is a special version of Centaur, 22 points, set on a 19 point body to save space. The type was set using Monotype's typecasting machine, in a pioneering demonstration that beautiful, well- designed books could be produced using modern methods. Frederick Goudy The Village Press, 1903-1939 "Frederic Goudy (1865-1947), commands a special place in the American book arts. In addition to his work as printer, book designer, and author, he was the first American to make the designing of type a separate profession. He was successful and prolific, designing 124 different typefaces and executing many of these from the drawing stage to the casting. Printing and type design for Goudy were activities that required all of the skills of fine craftsmanship while still operating in the framework of the Machine Age." Goudy and his wife, Bertha, operated the Village Press modeled
after the style of William Morris from 1903 to 1939 .
Goudy designed fonts for American and British foundries. He sold 8 to the Caslon Foundry in London and several for Lanston Monotype Co. Some of Goudy's most well known fonts, Copperplate Gothic and Goudy Old Style. Thank You (This is Goudy Old Style Font, lhoo)