Solar Thermal Energy

Prof. Keh-Chin Chang

Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics

National Cheng Kung University
Outline
Introduction to Heat Transfer
Source of Solar Energy
Applications of Solar Energy
Introduction to Photovoltaic
Solar Thermal Energy Systems
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy
Examples
Introduction to Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer in a Solar Collector
Heat Transfer Modes
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Heat Transfer Processes in a Solar Collector

qconv,air
qemit
qsun

absorbing film qconv,mediu Medium flow

m

qcond,insulator
Insulator
qcond,panel Panelmetal
Heat transfer modes
Three heat transfer modes in a solar collector:
Radiation
: solar irradiation
: emitted radiant energy from the panel
Convection
, : heat loss due to wind
, : heat transfer to the flow medium
throughout tube wall
Conduction
, : heat transfer inside the metal panel
, : heat loss to the insulator from the panel
Conduction
Definition:
The transfer of energy from the more energetic to the less energetic
particles (atoms or molecules ) of a substance due to interactions
between the particles without bulk motion.

= "

heat flux area

gradient

Fouriers Law: "

=
thermal conductivity
Convection
Definition:
Heat transfer between a fluid in motion and a boundary
surface

Knowledge of convective heat transfer needs to know both fluid mechanics and
heat transfer
Convection
Newtons cooling/heating law:

= " = ( )

: convective heat transfer coefficient

= (, )
(Thermal) Radiation
Definition:
Energy is emitted by matter via electromagnetic waves with the
wavelengths ranging between the long-wave fringe ultraviolet
(UV, 10-1m) and far infrared (IR, 103m).

Stefan-Boltzmann Law: for a blackbody (ideal case)

= " = ( 4 )
T: absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
For real case:
" = 4 ,0 < 1
emissivity
Example: Glass (transparent material)
Emission (E= 4 )
Reflection (G ) Irradiation (G)

Absorption (G )

Transmission (G )

G = G + G + G
G G G transmitivity
or 1= + + =++
G G G
reflectivity absorptivity
 Emissivity
Defined as the ratio of the radiant energy rate emitting from a
blackbody under identical condition
a) Monochromatic (or spectral) , directional emissivity
emitted

, (,,,)
, , , , = , (,)
intensity
blackbody

0 < 2

0
2
Spherical coordinate
Emissivity
b) Monochromatic, hemispherical emissivity

2 2 2 2
0 0 , 0 0 , ,
, = =
2 2 , (,)
0 0 ,

1 2 2
= , (T)
= 0 , (, , , )
0

c) Total , hemispherical emissivity

0 , , , 1
= = (, ), ,

0 , , 4 0
Absorptivity
Definition:
A function of the radiant energy incident on a body
that is absorbed by the body

a) Monochromatic, directional absorptivity, , (, , )

b) Monochromatic, hemispherical absorptivity, ()

c) Total, hemispherical absorptivity,

For a solar panel (opaque material, = = 0)
1 = + , 1 = +

=

4
=

Looking for high while small

A desired property for a good solar absorptance

> 0.9
1.0

visible light : 0.4-0.7m

< 0.1
0

0.1 3
()

As Kirchhoffs law for a diffuse (i.e., independent of direction)

surface
=
Source of Solar Energy
The Sun
Between the Sun and the Earth
Position of the Sun
Solar constant
Solar radiation and intensity
The Sun
Source of Solar Energy

A sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter

Consist of H, He, O, C, Ne, Fe

Surface temperature: 5,800K
Core temperature:13,600,000K
 Between the Sun and the Earth
Source of Solar Energy

Average distance:149.5 million km

(1 astronomical unit, AU)

equinox

solstice solstice

Elliptic Orbit
equinox
Between the Sun and the Earth
Source of Solar Energy
Position of the Sun (view from Earth)
Source of Solar Energy

Apparent placement of the Sun in the northern hemisphere

Position of the Sun (view from Earth)
Source of Solar Energy

Azimuth angle of the sun:

Often defined as the angle from due north in a clockwise direction. (sometimes from south)

Zenith angle of the sun:

Defined as the angle measured from vertical downward.
 Solar Constant
Source of Solar Energy

Amount of incoming solar radiation per unit area

incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays.
At a distance of one 1AU from the sun (roughly the

mean distance from the Sun to the Earth).

Includes a range of wavelength (not just the visible

light).

Solar Constant
Entry point into atmosphere
Intensity ~ 1350W/m2
Solar Radiation Spectrum
Source of Solar Energy
Solar Radiation Budget (to Earth)
Source of Solar Energy
Factors affect the Solar intensity
Source of Solar Energy

Latitude

Altitude

Atmospheric transparency

Solar zenith angle

Applications of Solar Energy
Reserves of energy on Earth
Solar energy distribution
Advantages of using solar energy
Types of applications
Reserves of Energy on Earth
Applications of Solar Energy

Remaining Available Period

Reserves (year)

Coal 660.8 Gton 43

Oil 152 Gton 210

Gas 160755 Gm3 67

Uranium 1.57 Mton 42

Solar Energy Distribution
Applications of Solar Energy

Annual global mean downward solar radiation distribution at the surface

Advantages of using Solar Energy
Application of Solar Energy

No pollution
Inexhaustible
Contribution to energy supply and CO2 reduction
The annual collector yield of the world was 109,713 GWh
(394,968 TJ). This corresponds to an oil equivalent of 12.4
million tons and an annual avoidance of 39.4 million tons
of CO2.
The annual collector yield of Taiwan was 918 GWh (3306
TJ). This corresponds to an oil equivalent of 101,780 tons
and an annual avoidance of 322,393 tons of CO2.
Weiss, Werner, I. Bergmann, and G. Faninger. Solar Heat WorldwideMarkets and Contribution to the
Energy Supply 2008. International Energy Agency, 2010.
Advantages of using Solar Energy
Application of Solar Energy

Energy production prediction

Types of Applications
Application of Solar Energy

Photovoltaic (PV)
Solar cell

Solar thermal energy

Solar water heater
Solar thermal power

Solar cooling

Solar thermal ventilation

Introduction to Photovoltaic
What is photovoltaic
Solar cell
What is Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic

A method of generating electrical power by converting solar

radiation into direct current electricity through some materials
(such as semiconductors) that exhibit the photovoltaic effect.
Solar Cell
Photovoltaic

Sun light of certain wavelengths is

able to ionize the atoms in the
silicon
The internal field produced by the
junction separates some of the
positive charges ("holes") from the
negative charges (electrons).
If a circuit is made, power can be
produced from the cells under
illumination, since the free
electrons have to pass through the
junction to recombine with the
positive holes.
Solar Thermal Energy Systems
How to use solar thermal energy
Types of solar collectors
Solar water heater
Solar thermal power
Solar thermal cooling
How to Use Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Energy

Working fluid
Solar Radiation Solar Thermal Energy
Solar collector

thermal energy

working fluid
Types of Solar Collectors
Solar Thermal Energy

Collectors and working temperature

Low temperature

Medium
temperature

High temperature
Flat-plate collector
Solar Thermal Energy

Use both beam and diffuse solar radiation, do not

require tracking of the sun, and are low-maintenance,
inexpensive and mechanically simple.
Flat-plate collector
Solar Thermal Energy

Glazed collector Unglazed collector

Flat-plate collector
Solar Thermal Energy
Flat-plate collector
Solar Thermal Energy

Main losses of a basic flat-plate collector during

angular operation

Weiss, Werner, and Matthias Rommel. Process Heat Collectors. Vol. 33, 2008.
Evacuated tube collector
Solar Thermal Energy

A collector consists of a row of parallel glass tubes.

A vacuum inside every single tube extremely reduces
conduction losses and eliminates convection losses.
Evacuated tube collector
Solar Thermal Energy

Heat pipe Sydney tube

Collector efficiency
Solar Thermal Energy

http://polarsolar.com/blog/?p=171
Parabolic trough collector
Solar Thermal Energy

Consist of parallel rows of

mirrors (reflectors) curved in
one dimension to focus the
suns rays.

All parabolic trough plants

currently in commercial
operation rely on synthetic oil
as the fluid that transfers heat
from collector pipes to heat
exchangers.
Linear Fresnel reflector
Solar Thermal Energy

Approximate the parabolic

trough systems but by using
long rows of flat or slightly
curved mirrors to reflect the
suns rays onto a downward-
facing linear, fixed receiver.
Simple design of flexibly bent
mirrors and fixed receivers
requires lower investment costs
and facilitates direct steam
generation.
Parabolic dish reflector
Solar Thermal Energy

Concentrate the suns rays at a

focal point propped above the
centre of the dish. The entire
apparatus tracks the sun, with
the dish and receiver moving
in tandem.
Most dishes have an
independent engine/generator
(such as a Stirling machine or
a micro-turbine) at the focal
point.
Heliostat field collector
Solar Thermal Energy

A heliostat is a device that

includes a plane mirror
which turns so as to keep
reflecting sunlight toward a
predetermined target.

Heliostat field use hundreds

or thousands of small
reflectors to concentrate the
suns rays on a central
receiver placed atop a fixed
tower.
Solar Water Heater
Solar Thermal Energy

Most popular and well developed application of solar

thermal energy so far
Low temperature applications
(Mainly using flat plate collector or evacuate tube collector)
Solar Water Heater
Solar Thermal Energy

Direct (open loop) Indirect (close loop)

User
User

Passive

(Thermosyphon)

User User

Active

Heat
exchanger
Solar Water Heater
Solar Thermal Energy

Installation direction
For northern hemisphere Facing south
For southern hemisphere Facing north

Installation tilt angle

The angle of the collector
is roughly equal to the
local latitude
 Solar Water Heater
Solar Thermal Energy

Annual heat collection vs. direction/tilt angle (in

north hemisphere)

Annual heat collection(%)

Annual heat collection(%)

Increasing collection area

Increasing collection area

L=local latitude

Direction shifted from south (angle)

Tilt angle of the collector

Solar Water Heater
Solar Thermal Energy

Residential hot water system

Hot water production
House warming

Solar Thermal Action Plan for Europe, ESTIF, 2007

Large-scale system
Dormitory hot water
Swimming pool

Industrial process heating

Solar Water Heater
Solar Thermal Energy

Industrial process heating

In EU, 2/3 of the industrial energy demand consists of heat
rather than electrical energy.
About 50% of the industrial heat demand is located at
temperatures up to 250C.
Solar Water Heater
Solar Thermal Energy

Market potential of industrial process heating

Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

Conversion of sunlight into electricity

Direct means : photovoltaics (PV),
Indirect means : concentrated solar power (CSP).

Solar thermal power

High temperature applications

(by means of sun-tracking, concentrated solar collectors)
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

Electrical power is generated when the concentrated

light is converted to heat and, then, drives a heat
engine (usually a steam turbine) which is connected
to an electrical power generator.
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

Types of solar thermal power plant

Technology roadmap concentrating solar power, IEA, 2010.

Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

Combination of storage and hybridisation in a solar

thermal plant
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

PS10 and PS20 solar power tower (HFC)

(Seville, Spain). 2007 and 2009
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

Kimberlina solar thermal energy plant (LFR)

(Bakersfield, CA), 2008.
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

Calasparra solar power plant (LFR)

(Murcia, Spain) 2009.
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

Puertollano solar power station (PTC)

(Ciudad real, Spain), 2009

Andasol solar power station (PTC)

(Granada, Spain), 2009
Solar (Thermal) Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

Active cooling
Use PV panel to generate electricity for driving a
conventional air conditioner
Use solar thermal collectors to provide thermal energy for
driving a thermally driven chiller Solar thermal cooling

Passive cooling
Solar thermal ventilation
Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

International Journal of Refrigeration 3I(2008) 3-15

 Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

Solar cooling benefits from a better time match

between supply and demand of cooling load

1 "Renewable Energy Essentials: Solar Heating and Cooling," International Energy Agency, 2009.
2 B.W. Koldehoff and D. Grisried, "Solar Thermal & Solar Cooling in Germany," Management.
 Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

Active cooling
Use solar thermal collectors to provide thermal energy for
driving thermally driven chillers.

Heat source Cooling tower

Cooling distribution
Chiller
Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

Basic type of solar thermal chiller

Absorption coolingLiBr+H2O
Closed cycle
Adsorption coolingsilica gel+H2O
DEC, Desiccant Evaporative Cooling Open cycle
 Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

Conventional compression cooling Adsorption/absorption cooling

QL QL
Qg
high pressure vapor high pressure vapor
condenser condenser

We desorption
compressor expansion We expansion
valve (switch) valve

absorption

evaporator Qa
evaporator
QC
low pressure vapor
QC low pressure vapor

COPelect=QC/We COPthermal=QC/Qg
COPelect=QC/We
 Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

COPthermal of different type of chiller

Henning, H. Solar assisted air conditioning of buildings an overview. Applied Thermal Engineering 27, no. 10 (July 2007): 1734-1749.
Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

"Solar Assisted Cooling State of the Art ,ESTIF, 2006.

Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

A. Napolitano, "Review on existing solar assisted heating and cooling installations," 28.04.2010 Workshop rhus, Denmark ABSORPTION, 2010.
 Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

D. Mugnier, "Refrigeration Workshop Market analysis Market actors Systems costs Politics : incentives & lobbying Conclusion Introduction,"
28.04.2010 Workshop rhus, Denmark ABSORPTION, 2010.
 Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

D. Mugnier, "Refrigeration Workshop Market analysis Market actors Systems costs Politics : incentives & lobbying Conclusion Introduction,"
28.04.2010 Workshop rhus, Denmark ABSORPTION, 2010.
Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy

Passive Cooling (solar ventilation, solar chimney)

A way of improving the natural ventilation of buildings
by using convection of air heated by passive solar
energy.
Direct gain warms air inside the chimney causing it to
rise out the top and drawing air in from the bottom.
Solar desalination/distillation
Solar humidification-dehumidification (HDH)
HDH is based on evaporation of brackish water and consecutive
condensation of the generated humid air, mostly at ambient pressure.
The simplest configuration: the solar still.
In sophisticated systems, waste heat is minimized by collecting the heat
from the condensing water vapor and pre-heating the incoming water
source.
Solar Thermal Applications
Solar Thermal Energy
Facade integration (roof)
Conventional installation way in Taiwan
Conventional installation way in Taiwan
Damage due to typhoon invasion
Damage due to typhoon invasion
Roof integrated flat-plate collectors on
house in Denmark (Source: VELUX)
Facade integration (balcony)
 Contribution of solar thermal to EU heat
demand by sector
Solar Thermal Energy

Reduction of -40%

Summary, Executive, Werner Weiss, and Peter Biermayr. Potential of Solar Thermal in Europe - Executive Summary, 2009.
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy
Geographical aspects
Financial aspects
Geographical Aspects
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy

Low energy density

Solar radiation has a low energy density relative to other
common energy sources

Unstable energy supply

Solar Energy supply is restricted by time and
geographical location
Easily influenced by weather condition
Financial Aspects
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy

Higher cost compared with traditional energy

The capital cost in utilization of solar energy is generally
higher than that of traditional ones, especially for PV.

Solar water heater

Most economically competitive technology by now
The need of SWH is inversely proportional to local
insolation
Examples
Example 1
A family with 5 members plans to install a solar water heater
which is mainly used for bath. The hot-water temperature
required for bath is 50 , while the annual average
temperature of cold water is 23 . Assuming that each person
needs 60 liters of hot water for taking bath a day. How much
heat should be provided by the solar water heater to satisfy the
familys demand for bath?

(Note: water specific heat Cp is assumed to be 1 kcal/kg-, water density is 1 kg / l. )

Answer 1
Q M C p T
Q Heat Demand
M Hot Water Quantity
C p specific heat capacity of water
T temperature difference between hot and cold water

50C 23C
l kcal
Q 60 5 person 1
person day kg C

50C 23C
kg kcal
60 5 person 1
person day kg C
kcal
8100
day
Example 2
A solar water heater is equipped with an effective collect area
of 1m2, and the daily cumulative insolation onto the collector
is 4 kWh/m2-day in February.
If the average efficiency of the solar water heater is 0.5, how
many kilo-calories (kcal) of heat can be collected by this solar
water heater during a day?

(Note: 1cal = 4.186J = 4.186 W s).

Answer 2
Qc H A
Qc Heat provided from collector
H Daily accu mulative insolation
A Effective collector area
Efficiency of solar water heater

kWh
Qc 4 1 m 2
0.5
m day
2

kJ 1
3600 s kcal
kWh kJ
2 2 s 7200 7200 4.186
day day day day
kcal
1720
day
Example 3
The minimum heat demand is 8100 kcal/day, and there is a
certain solar panel which can offer a heat supply of 1720
kcal/m2 in a day. With the absence of auxiliary heating device,
calculate the required installation area of the solar panel.
If the effective arer of this solar panel is 0.8 m2 /piece, how
many pieces of solar panel should be installed to collect this
heat demand?
Answer 3
Q Demand Heat
Q
A Qc Heat provided from collector per m 2
Qc A Effective collector area

8100 kcal
day
A 4.764m 2
1720 kcal
m 2 day

4.764m 2
2
5.955 6 pieces
0.8m
Example 4
From meteorological data, the average daily accumulative
insolation in Tainan is 420 ly/day (i.e., langley / day).
For a solar collector that faces south with a area of 2 m2 and
tilt angle of 0 degree, what is the daily accumulative insolation
onto the collector surface? (in kWh and kcal, respectively)
(Note: ly = Langley = cal/cm2).
 Answer 4

ly cal
420 2 m2 420 2 2 m2
day cm day

1
kcal kcal
(1) 420 1000
2 m2 4200
1
10000m day
2
day

4.186W s 1000 kW 3600 hr

4.186 1
kWh
(2) 420 1 2 2 m 420 1 2
2
2 m2 9.767
10000 m day 10000 m day day