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INTRODUCTION

NATURE OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Interaction Bodies Rest/Motion


Forces: Solids: - Velocity
Tension Rigid
Compression Deformable - Acceleration
Shear Fluids:
Liquids - Time
Gases

SIMILARITY IN THE BRANCHES OF MECHANICS

a. Basic Principles and Fundamental Concepts


b. Newtons Laws of Motion
c. Principle of Work and Energy
d. Principle of Impulse and Momentum
UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
System Mass ( M ) Length ( L ) Time ( T ) Force ( F )

SI Kilogram ( kg ) Meter ( m ) Second ( s ) Newton ( N ) *

English Slug * Foot ( ft ) Second ( s ) Pound ( lb )

Metric Kilogram Meter ( m ) Second ( s ) Kilogram (kgF)*

*Derived Units from Newtons Second Law of Motion

F Ma kgF Ma / 9.8
a. Standard Acceleration of Gravity ( g ):
SI: g = 9.81 m/sec2 English: g = 32.2 ft/sec2
b. Mass (M) and Weight (W): W = Mg

c. Conversion Factors:
1 kgF = 2.2 lb 1 kgF = 9.81 N 1 lb = 4.448 N
d. Common Prefixes of SI Units:

SI Prefix Abbreviation Multiple


Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS

a. Compressibility:

- incompressible
- compressible

b. Viscosity:

- Non-viscous
- Viscous
- Newtonian
- Non-Newtonian

c. Ideal Fluid:

- Incompressible and non-viscous


FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Mechanics of Fluids is a branch of Physics that studies fluids and


the forces on them. It provides the theoretical foundation for the
subject hydraulics, which focuses on engineering uses of fluid
properties.
Hydraulics is an applied science and engineering dealing with the
mechanical properties of liquids.

DEFINITION OF A FLUID

Deforms continuously when subjected to shear stress


Three Branches of Fluid Mechanics

1. Fluid Statics, is the study of the mechanics of


fluids at rest.
2. Kinematics, deals with velocities and streamlines
without considering forces or energy involved.
3. Fluid Dynamics, is concerned with the relations
between velocities and accelerations and the
forces exerted by or upon fluids in motion.
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN A GAS AND A LIQUID

GAS
1. Molecules are very far apart.
2. Very compressible.
3. Expand indefinitely when external pressure is removed.
4. Can be held in equilibrium only when it is completely enclosed.
5. No free surface

LIQUID
1. Molecules are little closer.
2. Relatively incompressible.
3. Cohesion between molecules holds them together except of its
own vapor and does not expand indefinitely.
4. Can be held in equilibrium both in an open and close space.
5. May have a free surface (i.e a surface from which all pressure is
removed, except that of its own vapor) .
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Weight W: The earths gravitational pull upon a body. Its


dimension is newton (N) in the SI units.

Mass M: The quantitative measure of the amount of


matter in a given body. The dimension used for the mass in the SI units
is the kilograms (Kg) which is a base unit.

Note: The basic relation between the weight and the mass of a
body is
W
M or W Mg
g
where g = 9.81 m/s2, the acceleration of gravity at sea level.

The weight of the body varies directly as the amount of g which, at sea level,
from the equator to the poles, has a variation of only one-half percent. On the
other hand, the weight decreases with an increase in elevation from sea level
and this change is approximately one-thirtieth percent for each kilometer
increase in elevation.
3. Specific weight, y: the force exerted by gravity on a unit volume of fluid, or
W

Units: V
lb
English System:
ft 3
gr or tons
Metric System:
cm 3 m3
N
S.I. :
m3
Note: This relationship is true for liquids where varies slightly
regardless of temperature and pressure. For gases, is
computed from Charles and Boyles laws which give
p
English:
RT
where p - absolute pressure
R- gas constant (1545ft lbf/lbmol R)

T absolute temperature, ( 460 + F)


pg N
S.I. p 2
RT m
N m
R (8314N m/kmol K)
kg K
(1.986Btu/ lbmol R)

T=K, K =273 + C
Alternative unit of R: J/kg-K; Btu/lb-R; ft-lbf/lb-R
4. Specific Volume, :
1
The reciprocal of the density, or

ft 3 cm 3 m3
English: Metric : S.I :
slugs gr kg
5. Mass Density, (rho ) :
The mass per unit volume of the fluid, or
M W

V gV g

slugs
Units: English,
ft 3
gr
Metric,
cm 3
kg
S.I.,
m3
The density of water at 4 C (39.2 F ) is 1.00 g/cc ( or 1.00 g/mL ), equivalent
to 1000 kg/cu. m.
6. Specific Gravity; s: the dimensionless ratio of the fluid specific weight (or density) to
the standard reference fluid, water (for liquids),and air or hydrogen (for gases):
liquid liquid gas gas air 1.29
kg
sliquid ; s gas ; m3
water water air air (@ 0 C and
p = 101.3 KPa)
Note: At 39.2 F (4 C) the specific weight of water is approximately

kg g g
w
lb
62.4 3 or 9810 N3 ; w 1000 1.0 1.0
ft m m3 cm 3 ml

7. Dynamic (Absolute) Viscosity, (mu): the property of a fluid which determines the
amount of its resistance to a shearing stress.
Note: The shearing stress, (Tau), and the viscosity, (Mu) are related by,
dv lb N dv
,
ft 2 mm 2 , , is the velocity gradient
dx dx
Units of :
lb sec N s kg
English System: S.I:
ft 2 m2 ms
dyne s N s
Metric : poise ( P ) 2 0 . 1 At 20 C, = 1 cP
cm m2 = 0.01P =mN-s/m2
Newtons Law of Viscosity
Velocity Distribution:
Fluid between parallel plates:

b b F

Assumptions/Observations:
a. Closely spaced plates, y is very small.
b. Lower plate is fixed.
c. Force F exerted on upper plate with area A imparting a velocity u to the plate.
d. No slip at the boundaries, velocity of fluid same as boundary.
e. Line ab moves to the line ab after time interval.
f. Velocity distribution is linear.
g. Based on experimental observations: The applied force is proportional to the
area and velocity gradient. is the constant of proportionality.
Au u
F or
y y
du
h. Differential form ( Newtons Law of Viscosity):
dy
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES TABLE OF WATER IN SI UNITS
Temp, C Specific Density , Viscosity , Kinematic Surface Vapor Bulk modulus
weight Viscosity Tension Pressure of elasticity
kg/ m3 kg / (m-s) , m2/s head
, N/m3 , N / m K, N/m2
10-3 = 10-6 v = p / , m 107
10-2 =
0 9805 999.9 1.792 1.792 7.62 0.06 204
5 9807 1000.0 1.519 1.519 7.54 0.09 206
10 9804 999.7 1.308 1.308 7.48 0.12 211
15 9798 999.1 1.140 1.141 7.41 0.17 214
20 9789 998.2 1.005 1.007 7.36 0.25 220
25 9779 997.1 0.894 0.897 7.26 0.33 222
30 9767 995.7 0.801 0.804 7.18 0.44 223
35 9752 994.1 0.723 0.727 7.10 0.58 224
40 9737 992.2 0.656 0.661 7.01 0.76 227
45 9720 990.2 0.599 0.605 6.92 0.98 229
50 9697 988.1 0.549 0.556 6.82 1.26 230
55 9679 985.7 0.506 0.513 6.74 1.61 231
60 9658 983.2 0.469 0.477 6.68 2.03 228
65 9635 980.6 0.436 0.444 6.58 2.56 226
70 9600 977.8 0.406 0.415 6.50 3.20 225
75 9589 974.9 0.380 0.390 6.40 3.96 223
80 9557 971.8 0.357 0.367 6.30 4.86 221
85 9529 968.6 0.336 0.347 6.20 5.93 217
90 9499 965.3 0.317 0.328 6.12 7.18 216
95 9469 961.9 0.299 0.311 6.02 8.62 211
100 9438 958.4 0.284 0.290 5.94 10.33 207
Illustrative Examples:
a) The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is
9.81kN . / m 3 . The specific gravity of mercury is 13.55. Compute the
density of water and the specific weight and density of mercury.

Solution.
kN x1000 N
w 9.81 3 9.81
kg
w
3
m m 1000 3
g m m m
9.81 2 9.81 2
s s
Note : 1 N s 2
1kg
m
kN kN
mercury smercury water 13.55 9.81 3 133 3
m m

kg kg
mercury smercuty water 13.551000 3 13,550 3
m m
b) A gallon of water weighs 4.08 lb. Compute the following:
1) Mass in slugs
2) Mass in kg
3) Volume in cu. ft.

Solution.
W 4.08lb lb s 2
1) Mass in slugs: M M ft
0.1267 ( slugs )
g 32.2 2 ft
s
4.448 N
4.08lb N s2
2) Mass in kg: M
m
lb 1.85 (kg)
9.81 2 m
s
3) Volume in cu. ft. :
1 ft 3
V 1galx 0.134 ft 3
7.48 gal
c) A certain gas weighs 16 N/cu. m. at a certain temperature and
pressure. What are the values of its density, specific volume, and
specific gravity relative to air weighing 12 N/cu. m. ?
Solution.
The density of the gas is,
N
16 3
kg
m 1.631 3
g m m
9.81 2
s
The specific volume is,
1 1 m3
0.613
1.631 3
kg kg
m
The specific gravity is,
N
16 3
s m 1.333
a N
12 3
m
d) The specific gravity of glycerin is 1.26. Compute its density and
specific weight. Assume the water is under ordinary conditions.
Solution.
The density is,
glycerin g g
s glycerin 1.261.00 3 1.26 3
water cm cm
kg kg
or 1.261000 3 1260 3
m m
The specific weight is,
glycerin glycerin g
kg m
1260 3 9.81 2
m s
N kN
12,360 3 or 12.360 3
m m
6. Kinematic Viscosity, v (nu): the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to its
mass density, or



Units of :
ft 2 m2
English System: S.I:
sec sec
cm 2
Metric System: stoke
sec
7. Adhesion: the property of a liquid that enables it to stick to another
body.
8. Cohesion: the property of a liquid that resists tensile stress.
9. Surface Tension, (sigma): the effect of cohesion between particles
of the liquid at its surface.
N
Unit: English System, lb S.I,
ft m
10. Capillarity: this is due to cohesion and adhesion. If adhesion has a
greater effect than cohesion, the liquid will rise at the point where it
comes in contact with another body. If cohesion is prevalent, the
liquid will depressed. The capillary rise in a tube can be expressed,
2 cos 2 cos
h
r gr

where
= surface tension in units of h
r
force per unit length
= wetting angle
= specific weight of liquid
r = radius of tube
h = capillary rise
= density of liquid
g = gravitational acceleration
11. Vapor Pressure, pv : the pressure exerted by the vapor as
evaporation of the liquid takes place within a closed space.

Units: English System, lb lb


or
ft 2 in 2
N
S.I.,
m2

Metric System, gr
cm 2
FLUID PROPERTIES MOST COMMONLY CONSIDERED
Property Definition Dimension Common Values
(SI Units) For Water ( 4 C) *
, Mass Density mass per unit volume ML-3 1,000 kg/m3
(kg/m3)
, Specific Weight weight per unit FL-3 9,800 N/m3
volume (N/m3)
S, Specific gravity /water (for liquid) 0 1
p, Pressure Normal force per unit FL-2
area (N/m2)
, Absolute Viscosity Newtons law of FL-2T 1.52 x 10-3 N s/m2
viscosity (N s/m2)
, Kinematic Viscosity / L2T-1 1.52 x 10-6 m2/s
(m2/s)

* Note: The values of fluid properties vary with temperature


COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUID
The compressibility ( change in volume due to change in pressure ) of
a liquid is inversely proportional to its volume modulus of elasticity,
also known as the bulk modulus. This is defined as
dp v
Ev v dp
dv dv
where v = specific volume
p = pressure
Rearranging the definition of Ev , as an approximation, we may used
for the case of a fixed mass of liquid at constant temperature,
p Coefficient of Compressibility

Ev
1
or Ev
2 1 p2 p1
= coefficient of compressibility
1 Ev
Example 1. Reduce 1 centipoise to the English system. If this is the
dynamic viscosity of water at 68 F (20C), what is the kinematic
viscosity in the English system?
Solution.
dyne s g
1 centipoise 0.01 poise 0.01 0.01
cm 2
cm s
1 lb = 444,800 dynes
a) The dynamic viscosity in English system
2
dynes s 1lb 2.54cm 12in
0.01 poise 0.01 2


cm 444,800dynes in ft
lb s
2.088 x10 5
ft 2
b) The Kinematic viscosity in the English system
g 62.32
lb
( water) at 68F
where

3
ft

2.088 x10 5 32.2 5 ft


2
1.079 x10
62.32 sec
Example 2. The kinematic viscosity unit of 1 ft2/sec is equivalent to how
many stokes?
Solution:
2
ft 2.54cm 12in
2
cm 2
1
929 or 929stokes
sec in ft sec

Example 3. A volume of 15.5 cu. ft of a certain fluid weighs 782 Ib.


Compute the mass density.
Solution:
M W 782lb slugs
1.567
ft
15.5 ft
3
V gV 32.2 3 ft
sec 2
Example 4. A barangay of 8,000 population has an average water
consumption per person per day of 110 gallons. Compute the average
total rate of consumption in cubic feet per sec. and in gallons per
minute. (1 cu. ft. = 7.48 gallons)
Solution:
gallons
a) Average Total Consumption: 8,000 persons x 110
person day
gal
88 x10 4
day
gal
88 x10 4
ATC
day ft 3
gal hr 3600 sec 1.362
7.48 3 24 sec
ft day hr
b) Average Total Consumption: gal
min
gal
88 x10 4
day gal
ATC 611.111
hr 60 min min
24
day 1hr
Example 5. Compute the unit weight of dry air at 15 C and an absolute
pressure of 14.7 psi (pounds per square inch). Also solve for the
kinematic viscosity.
Solution.
p
a)
RT

where: R 53.3
ft
air
R
15C 59F
lb 144in 2
14.7
2 2


in ft lb
0.0765 3
53.3
ft
460 59 F ft
R

As determined by Bearden, the dynamic viscosity of air at 20 C is


0.0001819 poise and changes at that temperature at a rate of
0.0000005 poise /C
b) at 15C 0.0001819 50.0000005
0.0001794 poise ( P) or dyne sec
cm 2
dyne sec
0.0001794 2 12in 2.54cm
2

cm
dynes ft in
444,800
lb
7 lb sec
3.74 x10
ft 2
The Kinematic viscosity is, lb sec ft
3.74 x107 32.2 2
g ft 2
sec

0.0765
lb
ft 3

4 ft 2
1.58 x10
sec
Example 6. At a depth of 8 km in the ocean the pressure is 81.8 MPa.
Assume specific weight at the surface is 10.05 kN/cu.m and that the
N
average volume modulus is 2.34 x10 9 2
for the pressure
m
range.
(a) What will be the change in specific volume between that at the
surface and at that depth?
(b) What will be the specific volume at that depth?
(c ) What will be the specific weight at that depth?
Solution.
3
(a) Change in specific volume, 5 m
v 3.412 x10
v p p kg
v
v Ev Ev
m N
9.81 81.8 x106
v s2 m 2

3 N 9 N
10.05 x10 3
2.34 x10
m m2
( b ) Specific volume at that depth of 8 km
m3
v v2 v1 3.412 x105
kg
1 m3
v2 3.412 x10 5
1 kg

g m3
v2 3.412 x10 5
1 kg
m
9.81 2
s m3
v2 3.1412 x10 5
N3 kg
10.05 x10
m3
m3
v2 9.420 x104
kg
(c) Specific weight at that depth 8 km

2 2 g
1
2 g
v2

1 m
2 9.81 2
m3 s
9.420 x10 4
kg
N
10,414 3
m
Example 7. The radius of the tube as shown in the figure is 1 mm.
The surface tension of water at 20 C is equal to 0.0728 N/m . For a
water glass = 0

2r
Solution.
( a) Capillary rise in the tube in mm
2 cos 20.0728cos 0
h 0.0148m. 14.8mm
gr 10009.810.001
( b ) Total force due to surface tension
F ( cos )(d )
F (0.0728 cos 0)0.002

F 4.57 x10 4 N

( c ) Weight of water
N
m
2

W V 9810 3 0.001m 0.0148m

4.57 x10 4 N
Example 8. Calculate the density, specific weight and specific volume of
chlorine gas at 25 C and under a pressure of 600 kPa absolute. The gas
constant R for chlorine is 117 N m/ kg - K.

Solution:

1. The density of chlorine gas is

p 600 x103 kg
17.209 3
RT 11725 273 m

2. The specific weight of chlorine is

g 17.2099.81 168.820
N
m3
3. The specific volume of chlorine gas is
3
1 1 m
0.058
17.209 kg
Example 9. A fuel oil having a viscosity of 0.297 N s/m2 flows through a
circular pipe 15 cm in diameter. At the center of the pipe the velocity is 1.20
m/s and decreases to a minimum value at the pipe wall. The value of the
velocity at any point in the cross section a distance x from the center is

V 63.4
r 2
x2

and r is the radius of the pipe. Compute the shear stress at a point midway
between the center and the wall ( x = 3.75 cm).

Solution: x (m) Substituting r = 7.5 cm or 0.075 m


V = f(x) and = 0.296 N s/m2 to V, we
get
V 63.4

0.0752 x 2
15 cm V m/s
0.297

V 1.201 213.468 x 2
1.2 m/s dV
426.936 x
dx
Note: The negative sign denotes that V is decreasing as x increases.
x (m)

15 cm 3.75 cm = 0.0375 m

The shearing stress at x = 0.0375 m is


dV dV
Note : 426.936 x
dx dx

0.297426.9360.0375

N
4.755
m2
PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS

For any ideal gas experiencing any process or changes, the equation
of state is given by:

p1V1 p2V2 (Universal Gas Law) (1)



T1 T2
When temperature is held constant, equation 1 reduces to
p1V1 p2V2 (Boyles Law) (2)

When the volume of a confined gas is constant, the pressure is


proportional to the absolute temperature, or
p1 p2
(3)
T1 T2
If the pressure of a confined gas is unchanged, the volume is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature, or
V1 V2
(4)
T1 T2
Equations (3) and (4) are called Charless laws.
From equation (1)

pV pV m pV
k R nR
T T W T

pV nRT (General Gas Law)

where: n = number of moles


m = mass of the gas in grams
W = atomic or molecular mass of the gas in grams/mole
R = universal gas constant
If a gas is compressed or expand without loss of heat through the walls
of its container, the change in volume is said to be adiabatic or isentropic. Then
the special pressure volume relation is given as

p1v1 p2v2 cons tan t


k k

where: p = absolute pressure


v = specific volume
k = adiabatic exponent, the ratio of specific heat at constant
pressure to the specific heat at constant volume.

The value of k depends on the molecular structure of the


gas
k = 1.4 for air, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
SPECIFIC WEIGHT AND DENSITY OF AIR

Temperature Density Specific Weight


C ( kg/m3) (N/m3)
0 1.293 12.68
10 1.248 12.24
20 1.205 11.82
30 1.165 11.43
40 1.128 11.06
60 1.060 10.40
80 1.000 9.81
100 0.946 9.28
DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF AIR

Temperature Viscosity
C Pa s x 105
0 1.71
10 1.76
20 1.81
30 1.86
40 1.90
60 2.00
80 2.09
100 2.18
Holmans equation for finding of air is

1.716 x103 1 0.00275T 0.00000034T 2


where: is in Pa-s and T is the temperature in C
Problems for exercise

1. If a certain gasoline weighs 7 kN/m3, what are the values of its density,
specific volume, and specific gravity relative to water at 15 C?
2. A cubic meter of air at 101.3 kPa and 15 C weighs 12 N. What is its
specific volume?
3. The density of alcohol is 790 kg/m3. Calculate its specific weight, specific
weight, specific gravity and specific volume.
4. A certain gas weighs 16 N/m3 at a certain temperature and pressure.
What are the values of its density, specific volume, and specific gravity
relative to air weighing 12 N/m3?
5. Compute the number of watts which are equivalent to one horsepower.
( 1 HP = 550 ft-lb/sec; W = 107 dynes-cm/sec; 1 lb = 444,800 dynes).
6. A city of 6000 population has an average total consumption per person
per day of 100 gallons. Compute the daily total consumption of the city in
cubic meter per second ( 1 ft3 = 7.48 gallons ).

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