Chapter 11:

Occupational Health
PSYC 352
October 21
Occupational Health
Occupational health: Broad-based
concept that refers to the mental,
emotional, and physical wellbeing of
employee in relation to the conduct of their
work.
Work plays a critical role in ones identity,
self-esteem, and psychological wellbeing.
Positive Psychology
Positive psychology: The study of the
factors and conditions in life that lead to
pleasurable and satisfying outcomes for
individuals.
Environmental Influences on
Mental Health (1 of 3; Warr, 1987)
There are 9 determinants of psychological
wellbeing:
1.Opportunity for control
Opportunity to decide and act in ones
chosen way
Potential to predict the consequences of
action
Environmental Influences on
Mental Health (2 of 3; Warr, 1987)
2. Opportunity for skill use
Those that prevent people from using skills
they already possess
Restrictions on the acquisition of new skills
3. Externally generated goals or challenges
4. Environmental variety
Environmental Influences on
Mental Health (3 of 3; Warr, 1987)
5. Environmental clarity
Feedback about actions
Clarity of role requirement
6. Availability of money
7. Physical security
8. Opportunity for interpersonal contact
9. Valued social position
Esteem
Role membership
The Components of Mental Health
(1 of 4;Warr, 1987)
There are 5 major components of mental
health:
1. Affective wellbeing
Pleasure
Arousal
2. Competence
A competent person has adequate
psychological resources to deal with lifes
pressures
The Components of Mental Health
(2 of 4;Warr, 1987)
3. Autonomy
The ability to resist environmental influences
and determine ones own opinions/actions
Employees control of the timing and
method of her/his work tasks (Turnbull,
1988)

Autonomy appears to be more important in predicting

wellbeing in Western cultures than Eastern cultures.
The Components of Mental Health
(3 of 4;Warr, 1987)
4. Aspiration
Someone with high aspiration engages with
the environment, establishes goals, and
makes efforts to attain them.
High motivation
Alertness to new
Aspiration opportunities
Commitment to meet
personal challenges
The Components of Mental Health
(4 of 4;Warr, 1987)
5. Integrated functioning
People who are integrated exhibit balance,
harmony, and inner relatedness

5 components work together to make up well-

being:
1. Affective well-being
2. Competence
3. Autonomy
4. Aspiration
5. Integrated Functioning
Work Stress (1 of 2)
Work stress: The response to stimuli that
are present on the job that lead to the
negative consequences, physical or
psychological, to the people who are
exposed to them.
Stress symptoms can cause individuals
suffering, significantly affect absenteeism and
productivity levels within organizations.
Outcomes include lower levels of self-esteem,
job satisfaction, and motivation as well as
higher blood and cholesterol levels,
depression, ulcers, and heart disease.
Work Stress (2 of 2)
46% of American workers felt that their
jobs were very or somewhat stressful.
27% state that jobs were the single
greatest source of stress in their lives.
In a survey of American managers, 88%
reported elevated levels of stress.
Stress affects almost 1/3 of the European
working population.
A Model of Stress (1 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
Kahn and Byosieres (1992) model of stress
conceptualizes stress in organizations in
terms of 7 major categories.
1. Organizational antecedents to stress
Stress markers
Organizational characteristics
Size
Work schedule
 A Model of Stress (2 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
2. Stressors in organizational life
There are 2 major types of stressors:
Ill health is related to
Task content monotonous work and
sustained vigilance
Strain

Role Properties Psychological

- Role ambiguity
- Role conflict
- Role overload
A Model of Stress (3 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
3. Perception and cognition
Helps explain why people react differently to
stressors that are objectively the same.
Primary appraisal: Initial determination that a
stimulus is positive, negative, or neither in its
implications for wellbeing.
Secondary appraisal: Judgment about what
can be done to minimize damage or
maximize gain.
 A Model of Stress (4 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
4. Response to
stress Behavioral:
Work role
Physiological: e.g.,
cardiovascular Antisocial behavior

symptoms (blood at work

pressure, cholesterol Flight from the job
level) Degradation of
Psychological: e.g., other roles
job dissatisfaction Self-damaging
behavior
A Model of Stress (5 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
5. Consequences of stress
The consequences of stress typically affect
the performance of the individual on the job
and in other life roles.
Health and illness
Organizational effectiveness
Performance in other life roles
 A Model of Stress (6 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
6. Properties of people as stress mediators
2 personality characteristics mediate effects of
stress {stressor individual difference strain}
Personality type:
Type A: Personality construct that describes individuals who tend
to be aggressive and competitive and feel under chronic time
pressures.
Type B: Personality construct that describes individuals who
tend not to be competitive, intense, or feel under chronic time
pressures.
Locus of control: Personality construct relating to the
perceived cause or locus of control for events in ones
life being either internal or external.
A Model of Stress (7 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
7. Properties of situation as stress mediators
Situations buffer stress.
Situations

Stressor Strain

The primary situation factor is social support

Other situations can buffer against stress:
Predictability, understandability, controllability
Prevention and Intervention
Organizational Level
Selection and placement
Training and education programs
Physical and environmental characteristics
Communication
Job redesign/restructuring
Individual/Organizational Level
Coworker support groups
Role issues
Participation and autonomy
Prevention and Intervention
Individual Level
Relaxation
Meditation
Biofeedback
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
Exercise
Timemanagement
Employee assistance programs
 Is Stress Always Bad (1 of 2)?
Certain job demands that, although pressure-laden and
stressful, are viewed as rewarding work experiences.
McCauley and colleagues labeled these job demands
challenges (e.g., job overload, time pressures, and high
levels of responsibility)
Managers' reports that challenging job demands or work
circumstances produce positive feelings, even though
they may be stressful.
This is consistent with the theoretical distinction that has
been made in the general stress literature between
eustress and distress.

Source: Cavanaugh, M. A., Boswell, W. R., Roehling, M. V., & Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An empirical
examination of self-reported work stress among US managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 65-74.
 Is Stress Always Bad (2 of 2)?
Challenge Stressors
The number of projects and or assignments I have.
The amount of time I spend at work.
The volume of work that must be accomplished in the allotted time.
Time pressures I experience.
The amount of responsibility I have.
The scope of responsibility my position entails.
Hindrance Stressors
The degree to which politics rather than performance affects
organizational decisions.
The inability to clearly understand what is expected of me on the job.
The amount of red tape I need to go through to get my job done.
The lack of job security I have.
The degree to which my career seems stalled.

Source: Cavanaugh, M. A., Boswell, W. R., Roehling, M. V., & Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An empirical examination of
self-reported work stress among US managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 65-74.
Work-Family Conflict (1 of 6)
Changes in the workforce and in the family
domain have renewed interest in the study
of work-family conflict.
Macro level changes: Family-related changes:
Methods of production Increased role for fathers
Increased technological Widespread maternal
sophistication employment
Widespread downsizing Greater life expectancy

Changes in the psychological experience of work:

Role overload Contingent work
Job Insecurity Self-employment, working from home
Skills Financial strain
Work-Family Conflict (2 of 6)
3 Targets of Research in WFC (Zedeck, 1992):
Effects of work on family
Effects of family on work
Family-work interaction
Work-Family Conflict (3 of 6)
3 Models of WFC:
Spillover
Model: similarity between what
occurs in the work and family environments
Spillover between work and family can be negative
or positive (Zedeck & Mosier, 1990)
Compensation Model: inverse relationship
between work and family
Segmentation Model: work and nonwork
spheres are distinct
Work-Family Conflict (4 of 6)
Gender Differences in WFC (Kossek & Ozeki, 1998):
Correlation between WFC and job satisfaction
= -.35 for women, -.29 for men
Correlation between WFC and life satisfaction
= -.42 for women, -.32 for men
Mental Health and WFC (Frone, 2000):
EEs who experience WFC were 30 times
more likely to experience mental health
problems.
 Work-Family Conflict (5 of 6)
Why Study WFC?
In a meta-analysis on the consequences of WF conflict, Allen,
Herst, Bruck, and Sutton (2000) reported that WF conflict was
related to:

Life satisfaction (-.28) Distress (.41)

Marital satisfaction (-.23)
Family satisfaction (-.17)
General psychological health (.29)
Physical symptoms (.29)
Depression (.32)
Job burnout (.42)
Alcohol use (.17)
Family distress (.31)
Job sat (.-24)
Career satisfaction (-.04)
Org commitment (-.23)
Turnover intentions (.29)
Absenteeism (-.02)
Job performance (-.12)
Work-Family Conflict (6 of 6)
Family-Friendly Policies:
On-site child care centers
Family and Medical Leave Act (1993):
Employees can withdraw from the workforce to
attend to family needs without risking the loss of
their jobs
Workers get up to 12 weeks unpaid leave each
year for the birth, adoption, or foster care of a
child; care for a spouse, parent or child with health
condition; or employees own health condition.
The FMLA covers private employers with 50 or
more employees.
Dual-Career Families (1 of 2)
Rapoport and Rapoport (1969) first proposed the term
dual-career family in the late 1960s, when more and
more women were entering the workplace. They
originally described a dual-career family as both
husband and wife pursue careers and at the same
time establish a family life with at least one child (p. 1).

Dual-Career Marriage Dual-Earner Marriage

Married couple in which
both spouses are employed
but the main purpose of one
or both of the jobs is to
establish and maintain a
career.
Married couple in which
both spouses are employed
but the main purpose of one
or both of the jobs is to
produce income.
Dual-Career Families (2 of 2)
Approximately 60% married couples are dual-
earners
Only 17% of families conform to the 50s model
of the working dad and stay-at-home mom
More women adjust careers for families
Mothers with young children work 77
hours/weed in the home, on average
There is a differential in division of labor
between spouses
Work Schedules: Shift Work
Shift work: the period of time a person
must perform her/his hob; usually an 8-
hour period.
Set vs. rotating shifts
Problems associated with shift work:
Physiological
Social

Shift workers are more likely to quit

Work Schedules: Flextime
Flextime: a schedule of work hours that
permits employees flexibility in when they
arrive at and leave work.
73% of US employers offer flextime
Lateness is virtually eliminated
Findings are positive
Work Schedules:
Compressed Workweek
Compressed work week: a schedule of
work hours that typically involves more
hours per day and fewer days per week.
Advantages Disadvantages
More time for Worker fatigue
recreation Fewer productive
Chance to work 2nd job hours
More time with family More accidents
Less company
overhead
Substance Abuse and Work
(1 of 4)
Substance Abuse: the ingestion of a broad array
of substances (such as alcohol, tobacco, or
drugs) that are deemed to have a harmful effect
on the individual.
Statistics
ADA considers former drug use a disability
Performance impairment
Economic issues
Societal costs
Substance Abuse and Work
(2 of 4)
Critics view of drug screening:
Screening violates individuals right to privacy
Tests are frequently inaccurate
Most support drug testing in jobs where public
safety is crucial (e.g., nuclear power plant
operators)
Postal Services found that 6 months after drug
testing had occurred, workers who had tested
positive prior to employment were absent 41%
more and fired 38% more than those who were
not positive (Wessel, 1989).
Substance Abuse and Work
(3 of 4)
Is drug screening legal?
In 1989, the Supreme Court upheld the
rulings:
The constitutionality of the government
regulations that require railroad crews
involved in accidents to submit to prompt
urinalysis and blood tests.
Urine tests for US customs service employees
seeking drug-enforcement posts.
Substance Abuse and Work
(4 of 4)
To avoid legal challenges, an employer
should:
Inform all employees and job applicants of
drug use policy
Include drug policy in employment contracts
Present the program in a medical and safety
context
If drug screening is used with employees, tell
employees in advance that it will be part of
employment
Unemployment (1 of 3)
Employment has intended and unintended
consequences
Intended:Earning a living
Unintended:
Imposed time structure
Regular interactions with people

Linking of goals to purposes

Status and identity

Enforcement of activity
 Unemployment (2 of 3)
Opportunity for control
Opportunity for skill use
Externally generated goals or
challenges
9 environmental Environmental variety
factors needed for Environmental clarity
mental health Availability of money
Physical security
Opportunity for interpersonal contact
Valued social position

Intended and unintended Negative effect on

consequences of well-being
unemployment
Unemployment (3 of 3)
Relationship between unemployment and
mental well-being:

Gaining Improved
employment r = .54
well-being

Losing Decreased
employment r = .36
well-being
Child Labor and Exploitation
Child Labor: economic activities carried
out by a person less than 15 years of age.
Not common in US
Not rare in other countries (250 million
children worldwide)
Harmful because it interferes with healthy
development (physical and psychological)