Work, Energy and Power!

The Calculations and

Equations
 James Joule
British physicist James Joule is best known for
his work in electricity and thermodynamics
Together with the physicist William Thomson
(later Baron Kelvin), Joule found that the
temperature of a gas falls when it expands
without doing any work. This principle, which
became known as the Joule-Thomson effect,
underlies the operation of common
refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
The metric system unit of energy is the joule
(J), after James Joule.
 Mechanical
Mechanical energy is the energy which is
possessed by an object due to its motion or its
stored energy of position
Kinetic energy : is the energy of motion
Potential Energy : an object can store energy as
the result of its position or elastic source
 Work Concept
Work is defined as a force acting upon an
object to cause a displacement
Mathematically, work can be expressed by the
following equation.
W= F x d cos q ( cos 00 = 1)
where F = force, d = displacement, and the
angle (theta) is defined as the angle between
the force and the displacement vector
 Work Calculations

W=F x d W=F x d cos 300 W= F x d

=100N X 5m = 100N X 5m X .87 =15Kg(10m/s2) X 5m
=500 N m = 413 N m = 750 N m
 Gravitational Potential Energy

After an object has been lifted to a

height, work is done.
PE = W= F x d= mah
Potential Energy is
maximum at the
maximum HEIGHT
Potential Energy Calculation

How much potential energy is lost by a

5Kg object to kinetic energy due a
decrease in height of 4.5 m
PE = mah
PE = (5Kg)(10 m/s2)(4.5 m)
PE = 225 Kg m2/s2
PE = 225 J
 Kinetic Energy Calculation
The energy of motion
DKE = W= F x d= mah=1/2 mv2
Find the kinetic energy of an 4 Kg object
moving at 5m/s.
KE = 1/2 mv2
KE = (4Kg)(5m/s) 2
KE = 50 Kg m 2 /s 2
KE = 50 J
Elastic potential energy
 Spring constant Calculation

A tired squirrel (mass of 1 kg) does push-

ups by applying a force to elevate its
center-of-mass by 5 cm. (A) Determine the
number of push-ups which a tired squirrel
must do in order to do a mere 5.0 Joules of
work. (B) Determine the squirrels spring
constant.
 Spring Constant Calculation

W = F x d = 10 N*(.05m)=.5 N m
W = .5 J (each push up)
10 pushups = 5 J
PE = k x 2
.5 J = k (.05m) 2
.5 J = k (.003m 2)
.5 J = .0015 m 2
333.3 J/m 2 = k
 Power!
Power is the rate that we use energy.
Power = Work or Energy / Time
P = W/t = F x d/t = F v
The units for power :
J/s
Kg m2 / s2 /s
Nm/s
 Power Calculation
A 5 Kg Cart is pushed by a 30 N force against
friction for a distance of 10m in 5 seconds.
Determine the Power needed to move the
cart.
P=Fxd/t
P = 30 N (10 m) / 5 s
P = 60 N m /s
P = 60 watts
 Summary
Energy is the ability to move
Potential is stored energy (Statics)
Dependant on height
Kinetic is moving energy (Dynamics)
Dependant on velocity
Springs store energy dependant on distance
and constant
 THERMOCHEMISTRY

The study of heat released or required by

chemical reactions

Fuel is burnt to produce energy - combustion (e.g. when fossil fuels are burnt)

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + energy

 What is Energy?

Energy

Kinetic Potential
energy (EK) energy (EP)

Energy due to Energy due to

motion position (stored
energy)
Total Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy
E = EK + EP

Kinetic energy & potential energy are interchangeable

Ball thrown upwards slows & The reverse happens as it

loses kinetic energy but falls back to the ground
gains potential energy
Law of Conservation of Energy: the total energy
of the universe is constant and can neither be
created nor destroyed; it can only be
transformed.

The internal energy, U, of a sample is the sum

of all the kinetic and potential energies of all
the atoms and molecules in a sample
i.e. it is the total energy of all the atoms and
molecules in a sample
 Systems & Surroundings

In thermodynamics, the world is divided into a system and its surroundings

A system is the part of the world we want to study (e.g. a reaction mixture in a
flask)
The surroundings consist of everything else outside the system

SYSTEM

OPEN
ISOLATED

CLOSED
OPEN SYSTEM: can exchange both matter and
energy with the surroundings (e.g. open reaction
flask, rocket engine)

CLOSED SYSTEM: can exchange only energy

with the surroundings (matter remains fixed)
e.g. a sealed reaction flask

ISOLATED SYSTEM: can exchange neither

energy nor matter with its surroundings (e.g. a
thermos flask)
 HEAT and WORK

HEAT is the energy that transfers from one object to another when the two
things are at different temperatures and in some kind of contact
e.g. kettle heats on a gas flame
cup of tea cools down (loses energy as heat)

Thermal motion (random molecular motion) is increased by heat energy

i.e. heat stimulates thermal motion
Work is the transfer of energy that takes place when an object is moved
against an opposing force

i.e. a system does work when it expands against an external pressure

Car engine: petrol burns & produces gases

which push out pistons in the engine and
transfer energy to the wheels of car

Work stimulates uniform motion

Heat and work can be considered as energy in transit
 UNITS OF ENERGY

S.I. unit of energy is the joule (J)

Heat and work ( energy in transit) also measured in joules

1 kJ (kilojoule) = 103 J

Calorie (cal): 1 cal is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1g

of water by 1oC

1 cal = 4.184 J
 INTERNAL ENERGY (U)

Internal energy changes when energy enters or leaves a system

DU = Ufinal - Uinitial

DU change in the internal energy

Heat and work are 2 equivalent ways of changing the internal energy of a
system
 Energy supplied to Energy supplied to
Change in internal
system as heat system as work
energy
= +

DU = q (heat) + w (work)

U like reserves of a bank:

q bank accepts deposits or
q withdrawals in two
currencies (q & w) but
stores them as common
fund, U.
w
w U
First Law of Thermodynamics:
the internal energy of an isolated system is
constant

Signs (+/-) will tell you if energy is entering or

leaving a system
+ indicates energy enters a system
- indicates energy leaves a system
 WORK

An important form of work is EXPANSION WORK i.e. the work done

when a system changes size and pushes against an external force
e.g. the work done by hot gases in an engine as they push back the
pistons

HEAT

In a system that cant expand, no work is done (w = 0)

DU = q + w
when w = 0, DU = q (at constant volume)
A change in internal energy can be identified with the heat supplied at constant
volume

ENTHALPY (H)

(comes from Greek for heat inside)

the change in internal energy is not equal to the heat supplied when the
system is free to change its volume
some of the energy can return to the surroundings as expansion work

DU < q
The heat supplied is equal to the change in another thermodynamic property
called enthalpy (H)

i.e. DH = q
this relation is only valid at constant pressure

As most reactions in chemistry take place at constant pressure we can

say that:
A change in enthalpy = heat supplied
EXOTHERMIC & ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS

Exothermic process: a change (e.g. a chemical reaction) that releases

heat.

A release of heat corresponds to a decrease in enthalpy

Exothermic process: DH < 0 (at constant pressure)

Burning fossil fuels is an

exothermic reaction
Endothermic process: a change (e.g. a chemical reaction) that requires (or
absorbs) heat.

An input of heat corresponds to an increase in enthalpy

Endothermic process: DH > 0 (at constant pressure)

Forming Na+ and Cl-

ions from NaCl is an
Photosynthesis is an endothermic process
endothermic reaction (requires
energy input from sun)
 Measuring Heat

Exothermic reaction, heat given off &

temperature of water rises
reaction

Endothermic reaction, heat taken in &

temperature of water drops
reaction
How do we relate change in temp. to the energy transferred?

Heat capacity (J/oC) = heat supplied (J)

temperature (oC)

Heat Capacity = heat required to raise temp. of an object by 1oC

more heat is required to raise the temp. of a large sample of a substance

by 1oC than is needed for a smaller sample
Specific heat capacity is the quantity of energy required to change the
temperature of a 1g sample of something by 1oC

Specific Heat Capacity Heat capacity

(Cs)
=
Mass

J / oC / g J / oC

=
g
 Vaporisation
Energy has to be supplied to a liquid to enable it to overcome forces that hold
molecules together
endothermic process (DH positive)

Melting
Energy is supplied to a solid to enable it to vibrate more vigorously until molecules
can move past each other and flow as a liquid
endothermic process (DH positive)

Freezing
Liquid releases energy and allows molecules to settle into a lower energy state and
form a solid
exothermic process (DH negative)
(we remove heat from water when making ice in freezer)
 Reaction Enthalpies

All chemical reactions either release or absorb heat

Exothermic reactions:
Reactants products + energy as heat (DH -ve)

e.g. burning fossil fuels

Endothermic reactions:
Reactants + energy as heat products (DH +ve)

e.g. photosynthesis
Bond Strengths
Bond strengths measured by bond enthalpy DHB (+ve values)
bond breaking requires energy (+ve DH)
bond making releases energy (-ve DH)

Lattice Enthalpy

A measure of the attraction between ions (the enthalpy change when a solid is
broken up into a gas of its ions)
all lattice enthalpies are positive
I.e. energy is required o break up solids
 Enthalpy of hydration DHhyd

the enthalpy change accompanying the hydration of gas-phase ions

Na+ (g) + Cl- (g) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
-ve DH values (favourable interaction)

WHY DO THINGS DISSOLVE?

If dissolves and solution heats up : exothermic

If dissolves and solution cools down: endothermic
 Ions associating with
Breaking solid into
ions + water = Dissolving

Enthalpy of Solution
Lattice Enthalpy
+
Enthalpy of
Hydration
=

Substances dissolve because energy and matter tend to disperse (spread

out in disorder)

2nd law of Thermodynamics

 Crust to Core workshop:
An introduction to Perple_X

Part 1: A very brief introduction

American Oxford Dictionary

Thermodynamics: the branch of physical science that
deals with the relations between heat and other forms
of energy (such as mechanical, electrical, or
chemical energy), and, by extension, of the
relationships and interconvertibility of all forms of
energy.
An introduction to (or some revision on) thermodynamics

American Oxford Dictionary

The first law of thermodynamics states the equivalence of heat and

work and reaffirms the principle of conservation of energy. The
second law states that heat does not of itself pass from a cooler to a
hotter body. Another, equivalent, formulation of the second law is
that the entropy of a closed system can only increase. The third law
(also called Nernst's heat theorem) states that it is impossible to
reduce the temperature of a system to absolute zero in a finite
number of operations.
 An introduction to (or some revision on) thermodynamics:
Some definitions

A system is some part of the universe that you want to study and understand
The surroundings are everything else in the universe that is not in our system
The system can be open or closed to (isolated from) the surroundings in terms of
both matter and energy

All Changes in a system are associated with the transfer of energy

Natural systems tend toward states of

minimum energy
 An introduction to (or some revision on) thermodynamics:
Some definitions

In our case, a system is likely to be a mineral or a rock

In this case, it is comprised of chemical components that describe chemical
variability in that mineral or a rock
Typical components might be FeO, MgO and SiO2 used to describe olivine
A phase is any mechanically separable and chemically homogenous portion of
the system, e.g. a melt, a fluid, or a mineral in a rock
A reaction is anything that changes the nature of the phases within a system
 An introduction to (or some revision on) thermodynamics:
Some definitions

Thermodynamics is primarily concerned with macroscopic energies of microscopic

processes that we might or might not fully understand.
It is convenient to group all of the variables required into two classes:
Intensive variables are independent of the amount of material present:
e.g. Pressure (P) & Temperature (T)
Extensive variables are dependent on the amount of material present:
e.g. Volume (V) & Entropy (S)
 Thermodynamics
a system:
Some portion of the universe that you wish to study

The surroundings:
The adjacent part of the universe outside the
system
Changes in a system are associated with the transfer of
energy

Natural systems tend toward states of minimum energy

 Energy States

Unstable: falling or rolling

Stable: at rest in lowest

energy state

Metastable: in low-energy
perch

Figure 5.1. Stability states. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous

and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
 First Law of Thermodynamics

You will recall from Chapter 5 that energy

cannot be created nor destroyed.
Therefore, the total energy of the universe
is a constant.
Energy can, however, be converted from
one form to another or transferred from a
system to the surroundings or vice versa.
 Spontaneous Processes
Spontaneous processes are
those that can proceed
without any outside
intervention.
The gas in vessel B will
spontaneously effuse into
vessel A, but once the gas is
in both vessels, it will not
spontaneously
Spontaneous Processes

Processes that are

spontaneous in one
direction are
nonspontaneous in
the reverse direction.
 Spontaneous Processes
Processes that are spontaneous at one temperature
may be nonspontaneous at other temperatures.
Above 0C it is spontaneous for ice to melt.
Below 0C the reverse process is spontaneous.
Reversible Processes
In a reversible process the
system changes in such a
way that the system and
surroundings can be put
back in their original
states by exactly reversing
the process.

Changes are infinitesimally

small in a reversible
process.
 Irreversible Processes

Irreversible processes cannot be undone by

exactly reversing the change to the system.
All Spontaneous processes are irreversible.
All Real processes are irreversible.
 Key Concepts of Chapter
Identifying Spontaneous Processes.
Identifying reversible and irreversible processes.
Entropy and its relation to randomness.
Second Law of Thermodynamics.
Predicting Entropy Changes of a Process.
Third Law of Thermodynamics.
Relate temperature change to entropy change.
Calculating change in standard entropy.
 Free energy in terms of enthalpy and entropy.
Relating free energy change to spontaneity.
Calculating standard free energy change.
Relationship between free energy and work.
Calculating free energy under nonstandard conditions.
 From Chapter 5
Chemical thermodynamics is the
study of energy relationships in
chemistry.
The First law of Thermodynamics
- energy cannot be created or
destroyed only converted from one
form to another.
 Enthalpy
heat transfer between the system
and its surroundings under const.
press.
Enthalpy is a guide to whether a
reaction is likely to proceed.
It is not the only factor that
determines whether a reaction
proceeds.
 Occur without outside intervention
Have a definite direction.
The reverse process is not spontaneous.
Temperature has an impact on
spontaneity.
Ex: Ice melting or forming
Ex: Hot metal cooling at room temp.
KI (aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) PbI2(s) + KNO3 (aq)

When mixed Precipitate forms spontaneously.

*It does not reverse itself and become two clear solutions.
 Reversible:
System changes state and can be restored by
reversing original process.
Ex: Water (s) Water (l)
Irreversible:
System changes state and must take a different
path to restore to original state.
Ex: CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O
 Whenever a system is in equilibrium, the
reaction can go reversibly to reactants or
products (water water vapor at 100 C).

In a Spontaneous process, the path between

reactants and products is irreversible.
(Reverse of spontaneous process is not
spontaneous).

*Scrambled eggs dont unscramble*

 Thermodynamics basics

Zeroth Law

A B C

If A and B and B and C are in

thermal equil, then A and C are
in thermal equil. [ie. At same T]
R Johnson/UAF/CEM/ME 2005
Temperature Heat and the Zeroth
and First Laws of
Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics
A principle branch of physics and engineering is Thermodynamics: the
study and application of thermal energy-often called internal energy of
systems
First we study in terms of bulk properties of matter then on the
microscopic scale, ie we will define temperature in terms of kinetic
energy in ch. 19
One of the principle concept is temperature
Temperature and internal energy are related through the concept of
the transfer of this energy in the form of heat and work done a system
We will quantify these notions in studying systems with many particles
These systems exist in various phases: ie liquid, solid and gas or vapor
 Questions that are addressed in
thermodynamics & the notion of temperature
Examples of how
thermodynamics
figures into everyday
engineering and physics
is countless
Heating of a car engine
Heating of your dinner in a
microwave oven or a
conventional oven
How a thermometer works!
 Thermoscope
Based on the fact that many
bodies change as we alter
their temperature by
heating or cooling
ie volume of a liquid
increase with heating
A metal rod grows in length
from heating
Expansion of volume of a Can use any one of these properties
gas with heating as the basis of an instrument to pin
Electrical resistance of a down the concept of temperature
wire increases with heating

MUST CALIBRATE IT TO THE

TEMPERATURE SCALE
 Thermoscope to Thermometer

Based upon the Zeroth Law of

thermodynamics and notion
thermal equilibrium
If two bodies A and B are
each in thermal equilibrium
with a third body T, than A
and B are in equilibrium with
each other
ie they have the same
temperature
 Temperature scale
To set a temp. scale pick some reproducible
thermal phenomenon and assign a certain
Kelvin temperature to its environment.
Called a fixed point and we give it a fixed
temperature.
Boiling point of water, freezing point of
water
Triple point of water is chosen: where Liquid
water, solid ice and water vapor coexist in
thermal equilibrium at a set temperature
and pressure
T=0.01o C=273.16 K
P=0.006 Atm .
(Recall 1atm=1.01x105 Pa)
 Constant Volume Gas Thermometer
Standard thermometer against which all
thermometers are calibrated is based on the
pressure of a gas in a fixed volume

T CP
T3 CP3

P P
T T3 273.16
P3 P3
 Calibrated temperature is independent of the gas used in a
constant volume gas thermometer

If you decrease the gas amount the

species of gas becomes irrelevant, that
is the temperature is independent of
the gas type as it must be for any
reliability

Plot shows the boiling point

temperature of water where the
amount of gas and thus p3 was
decreased to almost zero. The
temperature values converge!
 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales
Zero of the Celsius scale shifted to a
more convenient value than absolute
zero

Tc T 273.15

Fahrenheit scale employs a smaller

degree than the Celsius scale and a
different zero of temp

9
TF TC 32
5
 Some corresponding temperatures
Temp C F
Boiling point of water 100 212
Normal Body Temp 37.0 98.6
Accepted Comfort level 20 68
Freezing point of water 0 32
Zero of Fahrenheit scale -18 0
Scales coincide -40 -40
 Thermal Expansion Effects on
Materials Material Science
Linear (solids)
Area (solids)
Volume (solids and fluids)
Special Case:
Water above T=4o C water expands as the
temp rises, however it contracts as the
temp rises between
T=0o and 4o
 Thermal Expansion
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Many thermostats operate on this
principle, making and breaking an
electrical contact as the temperature
rises and falls

DL LDT
coefficient of linear expansion

Volume expansion DV V DT

3
 Sample prob
On a hot day in Las Vegas an oil trucker loads
V=37,000 L of diesel fuel . Encounters cold
weather on the way to the mountains of Utah,
DT=23.0 K. He delivers entire load. How
many liters did he deliver? See blackboard
THERMAL ENERGY or HEAT
The First Law of Thermodynamics
 Temperature and Heat
A change in the internal or
thermal energy is due to the
transfer of heat energy
Heat is the energy transferred
btwn. A system and the
environment because of a
temperature difference that
exists between them

Heat can be positive increasing

negative decreasing

Units:
Q=[1 cal=4.1868 J ]
 Definitions and Units
Heat - Energy in transit between two substances
- symbol Q
Units - Joule, calorie, Btu
calorie is energy necessary to increase
1 g of H2O by 1 degree C
Btu is energy necessary to increase 1 lb of H2O by
1 degree F
1 calorie = 4.186 Joule
1 Btu = 252 cal = 1054 J
1 Calorie (food) = 1 kcal
Internal Energy - The total energy (of the molecules)
contained within a substance;
it is a function of absolute temp.
- symbol U
 Heat Capacity
The energy required to increase the
temperature of an object
Q = CDT
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY is the energy
required to increase the temperature of each
unit mass or mole of an object
If the specific heat capacity is constant

Q mcDT or Q ncDT
Heat Capacity Table
 Conservation of Energy or Calorimetry

When heat is exchanged between substances

apply conservation of energy
cannot add or subtract temperatures
heat lost by one substance equals heat gained by
another
Heat and Work toward the 1st Law of
Thermo.

Here we consider the

thermodynamic state of a
system and the process of
energy transfer due to heat
transferred to and and work
done by the system
 Pressure versus Volume
functional relationship

dW F ds Fds ( pAds pdV
Vf Vf
W dW p(V )dV
Vi Vi