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Levees and Floodwalls
are barriers that hold back floodwaters. A levee

LEVEES FLOODWALLS
is constructed of compacted soil and requires
Types of Levees Types of Floodwalls
more land area. Floodwalls are built of
What are they?
Levee Failures Materials for Floodwalls
manmade materials, such as concrete and
Levee Design and Steel Sheetpiling Walls
masonry. These
Construction
structures may completely
Floodwall Failures
surround the building
Levee Maintenance
or may tie into high
Floodwall Design and
ground at each end. If openings
Levee Flood Fighting
are left for the
Construction
driveway and/or sidewalk, Floodwall
closures Performance
must be
installed to seal these access points
Other prior to
Considerations
flood.
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
Artificial Levees
Types of Levees
Levee Failures
Types of Floodwalls
Materials for Floodwalls
Natural Levees
Levee Design and
Construction
Steel Sheetpiling Walls
Floodwall Failures
Levee Maintenance Floodwall Design and
Levee Flood Fighting Construction
Floodwall Performance
Other Considerations
The main purpose of levees are to prevent flooding
of the adjoining countryside and to slow natural course
changes in a waterway to provide reliable shipping lanes for
maritime commerce over time; they also confine the flow of
the river, resulting in higher and faster water flows.
Artificial levees require substantial engineering.
Their surface must be protected from erosion, so they are
planted with vegetation such as Bermuda grass in order to
bind the earth together. On the land side of high levees , a
low terrace of earth known as banquette is usually added as
another anti-erosion measure on the river side , erosion
from strong waves are currents presents an even greater
threat to the integrity of the levee the effects of erosion are
countered by planting suitable vegetation or installing
stones, boulders, weighted matting or concrete revetments.
Riverside Banquette Levee Crown
Design High Water Level
Landslide Banquette
Berm
Landslide Slope
Flood Channel
Low Water Channel

Riverside Slope
Riverside Land Low Water Levee Protected Lowland

RiverRevetment
zone
Natural levees commonly form around
lowland rivers and creeks without human
intervention. They are elongate ridges of mud
and/or silt that form on the river floodplains.
They also act to reduce the likelihood of
floodplain inundation.
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
isTypes
a situation
of Levees where aTypes
levee fails or
of Floodwalls
isLevee
intentionally
Failures Materialscausing
breached, for Floodwalls
the previously contained
Construction water
Floodwall Failures
to
flood the land behind
Levee Maintenance the levee.
Floodwall Design and
Both natural and man-made levees can fail in a
number of ways. Factors that cause levee failure
include overtopping, erosion, structural failures, and
levee saturation. The most frequent (and dangerous)
is a levee breach. Here, a part of the levee actually
breaks or is eroded away, leaving a large opening for
water to flood land otherwise protected by the levee.
A breach can be a sudden or gradual failure, caused
either by surface erosion or by subsurface weakness in
the levee. A breach can leave a fan-shaped deposit of
sediment radiating away from the breach, described
as a crevasse splay.
In natural levees, once a breach has occurred, the
gap in the levee will remain until it is again filled in by
levee building processes. This increases the chances of
future breaches occurring in the same location.
Breaches can be the location of meander cutoffs if the
river flow direction is permanently diverted through
the gap.
Sometimes levees are said to fail when
water overtops the crest of the levee. This will cause
flooding on the floodplains, but because it does not
damage the levee, it has fewer consequences for future
flooding.
Levee Field Investigation
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
Levee Design and Construction
Levee Seepage Concerns
Construction Floodwall Failures
Levee Cost
Levee Construction Construction
Levee Flood Fighting
Certain conditions must exist before
levees can be considered a viable
retrofitting option. The questions that
should be asked before proceeding
any further are:
Does the natural topography around the structure in
question lend itself to this technique?
Is a suitable impervious fill material, such as CH, CL,
or SC readily available?
Do local laws or regulations and ordinances restrict
or permit the construction of a levee?
Will the natural construction of a levee alter, impede
or redirect the natural flow of floodwater?
Have the depth and velocity of flood flows around
the structure been checked?
Do the flood velocities along the water side of the
levee embankment exceed 8 feet per second?
The designer of a levee should be aware that the
construction of a levee may not reduce the hydrostatic
pressures against a below-grade foundation. Seepage
underneath a levee and the natural capillarity of the soil layer
may result in a water level inside the levee that is equal to or
above grade.
It is important that the designer check the ability of the
existing foundation to withstand the saturated soil pressures
that would develop under this condition.
The condition can be relieved by installation of
foundation drainage (drainage tile and sump pump) at the
footing level, and/or by extending the distance from the
foundation to the levee.
Levee Cost
Levee Construction
The following sections describe criteria and key
steps that are part of the levee design process.
1.Standard Levee Design Criteria;

and
2.Initial Levee Design Phases
Standard Levee Design Criteria
The following parameters are established to provide a
conservative design thereby minimizing the design cost. These
guidelines pertain to the design and construction of localized
levees with a maximum settled height of 6 feet. Techniques of
slope stability analysis and calculation of seepage forces are
not addressed. The recommended side slopes have been
selected based on experience, to satisfy requirements for
stability, seepage control, and maintenance. The shear
strength of suitable impervious soils compacted to at least 95
percent of the Standard Laboratory density as determined by
ASTM Standard D698-07e1 (ASTM, 2007) will be adequate to
ensure stability of such low levees, without the need for
laboratory or field testing or calculation of safety factors.
Maximum Settled Levee Height of 6 feet
Minimum Levee Crest Width of 5 Feet
Levee Floodwater Side Slope of 1V on 2.5H
Levee Land Side Slope
One Foot of Levee Freeboard
Initial Levee Design Phases
Because of the importance of the characteristics of
the soil that makes up the levee foundation, the excavation
of an inspection trench is required. The minimum
dimensions of the inspection trench are shown in the
previous figure. The inspection trench, which shall run the
length of and be located beneath the center of the levee,
provides the designer with information that will dictate the
subsequent steps in the design process. The mandatory
requirement of an inspection trench is fundamental to the
assumptions made for the rest of the design process.
The inspection trench will accomplish the following
objectives:
1. Locate Utility Lines That Cross Under the Levee

2. Provide Cut-Off for Levee Foundation Seepage
3. Identify Levee Foundation Soil Type
3.1 Clay Foundation, landside slope must be 1V
on 3H.
3.2 Sandy Foundation, landside slope of 1V on 5H
should be utilized.
Levee Cost
Levee Construction
Two types of seepage must be considered in the
design of a residential levee system:
1. Levee Foundation Seepage; and
2.Embankment Seepage
The amount of seepage will be directly related to the type and
density of soils in both the foundation and the embankment of
the levee. While the installation and backfilling of the inspection
trench with impervious material will help reduce concerns of
foundation seepage, further steps must be taken to minimize any
embankment seepage for levees between 3 and 6 feet in height.
The mandatory inclusion of a drainage toe will control the exit of
embankment seepage while also controlling seepage in shallow
foundation layers.
The inclusion of a drainage toe for a levee of
varying height will be limited to those areas with a height
greater than 3 feet. If the levee height varies due to the
natural topography, a drainage toe will be required only
for those portions of the levee that have a height greater
than 3 feet.
The major reason for the inclusion of these

measures is to relieve the pressure of seepage through or
under the levee so that piping may be avoided. Piping is
the creation of a flowpath for water through or under a
soil structure such as a levee, dam, or other embankment,
resulting in a pipe-like channel carrying water through or
under the structure. Piping can lead to levee failure.
Piping becomes a more serious problem as the
permeability of the foundation soil increases.
The drainage toe should be sized as shown in the
figure, and should be filled with sand conforming to the
gradation of standard concrete sand as defined by ASTM
standards.
Scouring/Levee Slope Protection
The floodwater side of the levee embankment may
require protection from erosion caused by excessive flow
velocities. For flow velocities of up to 3 feet per second, a
vegetatively stabilized or sodded embankment will generally
provide adequate erosion protection. Some vegetative covers,
such as Bermuda grass, Kentucky bluegrass, and tall fescue,
provide erosion protection from velocities of up to 5 feet per
second. The grasses should be those that are suitable for the
local climate. An alternative or supplement to a vegetative
cover is the use of a stone protection layer. The layer should be
placed on the entire floodwater face of the levee and be sized
in accordance with table.
Interior Levee Drainage
Constructing a levee around a house will not only keep
floodwaters out, but also will act to keep seepage and rainfall
inside the levee unless interior drainage techniques are
utilized. One method of draining water that collects from rain
and from seepage through and under a levee is to install drain
pipes that extend through the levee, as shown in the figure.
While this will allow for drainage by gravity, the drains must be
equipped with flap gates, which close to prevent flow of
floodwaters through the pipe. The flap gates will open
automatically when interior floodwaters rise above exterior
floodwaters.
To ensure that water from precipitation or
seepage within a leveed area is removed during
flooding, a sump pump should be installed in the
lowest area encompassed by the levee. All interior
drainage measures should lead to this pump, which will
discharge the flow up and over the levee. The sump
pump should have an independent power source so that
it will remain in operation should there be an
interruption of electrical power, a common event
during a flood.
Levee Cost
Levee Construction
Levee Cost
The accuracy of a cost estimate is directly
related to the level of detail in a quantity calculation.
The following example provides a list of the common
expenses associated with the construction of a
residential levee. Unit costs vary with location and
wholesale price index. To obtain the most accurate unit
prices, the designer should consult construction cost
publications or local contractors. The designer should
also budget an additional 5 percent of the total
construction capital outlay annually for maintenance
of the levee.
Item Unit Item Unit
Clearing and Grubbing Acre Riprap/Stone Slope Protection Cubic
Yards
Stripping Topsoil Cubic Yards Dig Inspection Trench: 2x 4 Linear
feet
Seeding Thousand Square Steel Drain Gate Valve Each
Feet
Sod Thousand Square Steel Drain Check Valve Each
Feet
Haul Fill (1-5 miles round Cubic Yards Sump and Sump Pump (w/ backup Each
trip) battery)
Haul Fill (5-5 miles round Cubic Yards DrainTile (4-6diameter PVC) Linear
trip) feet
Import Fill Cubic Yards DrainTile (8-10diameter PVC/ Linear

reinforced concrete pipe) feet
Compact Fill Cubic Yards Discharge Piping (1-2diameter Linear

PVC)for sump pump feet
Clearing and Grubbing
Seeding
Sod Stripping Topsoil

Haul Fill (1-5 & 5-5 times round trip)
Compact Fill
Import Fill
Riprap/Stone Slope Protection
Steel Drain Gate Valve
Dig Inspection Trench

Steel Drain Check Valve
Sump and Sump Pump (with battery)
Discharge Piping
Drain Tile
(4-6 & 8-10 inches diameter PVC)
Levee Cost
Levee Construction
Levee Construction
To prepare for the construction of a
levee, all ground vegetation and topsoil
should be removed over the full footprint of
the levee. If sod and topsoil are present,
they should be set aside and saved for
surfacing the levee when it is finished.
Factors to be considered upon construction
of a levee:
1.Levee Soil Suitability

2.Levee Compaction Requirements
3.Levee Settlement Allowance
4. Levee Borrow Area Restrictions
5.Access Across Levee
Most types of soils are suitable for

constructing residential levees. The exceptions are
very wet, fine-grained, or highly organic soils,
defined as OL, MH, CH, and OH type soils. The
best are those with a high clay content, which are
highly impervious. Highly expansive clays should
also be avoided because of potential cracking due
to shrinkage.
of a levee:

2. Levee Compaction Requirements
As the levee is constructed, it should be built
up in layers, or lifts, each of which must be
individually compacted. Each lift should be no more
than 6 inches deep before compaction. Compaction
to at least 95 percent of standard laboratory density
should be performed at or near optimum moisture
content with pneumatic-tired rollers, sheepfoot
rollers, or other acceptable powered compaction
equipment. In some situations, certain types of farm
equipment can affect the needed compaction.
of a levee:

3. Levee Settlement Allowance
The levee should be

constructed at least 5 percent
higher than the height desired to
allow for soil settlement.
of a levee:

A principle concern for the construction of

the levee is the availability of suitable fill for
levee construction, but caution should also be
taken as to the location of the fill borrow area.
For the purpose of this manual, a general rule is
to avoid utilizing a borrow area within 40 feet of
the landward toe of the levee.
Factors to considered upon construction of a
levee:

5. Access Across Levee
The complete encirclement of a structure with
a levee can create access problems not only for the
homeowner but also for emergency vehicles. If the
levee is low enough, additional fill material can be
added to provide a flat slope in one area for a vehicle
access ramp running over the levee as shown in the
If it isfigure.
following necessary to have
Care a gapbe
should in taken
the levee, this can be
to prohibit
closed during flooding through the use of a gate or closure
high volumes of traffic across the levee, which could
structure. It should be noted that the use of a closure
result inrequires
structure the formation of ruts or the
human intervention. wearing
If the structureaway
in of
the vegetative
question cover.to flood hazards with little or no
is susceptible
warning time, or if human intervention cannot be
guaranteed, the use of a closure is not recommended.
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
All flood control works must be properly
maintained to provide the protection for which they
were designed.
Levees should undergo annual inspection by
competent engineers who will look for evidence of
dangerous bank caving weak spots created by
animals or vegetation, foundation, settlement,
erosion around the outlets of sewers or other pipes
passing through the levee.
a) Erosion
All erosion gullies need to be repaired to prevent
further erosion and more significant damage during high
water. The ground should be scarified and backfilled with the
same type of material that the levee is made of. The backfill
material should generally be placed in 6 inch layers and
compacted mechanically or by hand, in order to restore the
original shape of the levee. Additionally, since this erosion is
typically a reoccurring problem, something should be done to
improve the drainage and prevent further erosion in the area.
Consideration should be given to installing drainage channels
or appropriately sized rock, and areas of the levee that remain
exposed should be reseeded and mulched. In extreme case of
channel/ bank erosion, a relocation or setback of the levee
may be the only economical solution.
b) Enroachments
Excavations, structures, or other obstruction

present within the project easement area are generally
prohibited. Fencing that prohibits access along the
crown of the levee is prohibited. Where access the
control is needed, gates should be installed that will
allow continued access along the crown of the levee
for surveillance and flood fight activities.
c) Slope Stability
Some earthen materials tend to become saturated with
water very easily. When this happens, they loose stability and
cannot support their own weight. If a levee is composed of
these materials, the embankment will slump off and move
down the slope into the river, causing a bulge at the base of the
slope. When levees break down like this, they are said to have
slope stability problems and need to be repaired
Deep-seated sliding often requires the removal and
replacement of that section of the levee or river slope, and the
stabilization of the area with a soil or rock berm.
d) Removal of Debris
Any accumulations of drift, grass clippings, and other

objectionable materials deposited in the riverward side or along
the crown and side slope of a levee must be removed and
disposed of at suitable locations outside of the floodway.
One common problem experience along urban levees is
that the residents pile lawn clipping and yard wasted on the
riverward side of the levee. This practice should not be allowed
because the clippings will kill the grass cover the protects the
levee. During a flood, the debris gets washed away, exposing the
levee material to erosion.
e) Animal Control
Closed attention must be given to the presence of
borrowing animals, since they may not be readily detected
without a through inspection. Burrows created by gophers,
muskrats, opossums, bsdgers, and the other animal can lead to
rapid levee failures during floods. For this reason, an active
animal abatement program needs to implemented to removed
these animals.
Inspections to detect the presence of burrowing animals
activity are generally most effective immediately after the levee
has been mowed. Animal burrows that are identified should be
throughly excavated and inspected, backfilled with compacted
soil that is similar to material of the levee, and reseeded. This
will avoid the possibility of water piping through unfilled
portions of the burrows during a flood.
f) Riprap Revetments and Banks
It is important to ensure that it is properly maintained.
Grouted riprap should be avoided unless it is absolutely
During project inpections, look for settle areas that may
neccesary. The surface of grouted riprap can look perfectly fine
indicate the riprap is being undermined by the river or debris.
until the bond between the grout and the rock fails. Grouted
When undermining or rock displacement occurs, additional
riprap can look perfectly fine until the bond between the grout
rock will need to be added to restore the even slope. When
and the rock fails. Grouted riprap can fail suddenly if it is
the rock protection or of areas upstream or downward of the
undermined, and this can lead to unexpected and catastrophic
project.
failure of the slope. Other objections to using grout include
Any areas of stone riprap that have settled, moved, or
the cost of stallation, lasting environmental impact, and the
been damaged by erosion should be filled in with hard,
undesirable aesthetics of having a cement-lined stream bank
durable rock of suitable size or with a six inches fillter
as opposed to a plain rock bank.
blangket layer or a layer of geotextile fabric under the stone
riprap, between the soil from washing out from under the
stone riprap.
g) Vegetation
Grass or sod cover is one of the most effective and
Periodic
econimical means mowing is essential
of protecting to control
flood maintaining
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The
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prevent unauthorized 15 feet beyondgrazing,
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embankment.
vehicle traffic, the missue of chemicals, or burning during
Tress andseasons.
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Failure the stability
to properly maintainof the
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cover can and interfere
result with emergency
in unnecessary operation
erosion and during
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embakmentAll tress and brust must be cleared and disposed of
failure.
away from the flood control project.
h) Cracking
It is important to closely monitor and evaluate all

visible areas of cracking on a levee to ensure they do
not develop slope stability problems. Crack in a levee
develop when the levee material is saturated with
water and when it is overly dry.
i) Ruts and Depressions
Ruts and other depressions often develop along levees or
patrol as a result of pedestrian or vehicular traffic, settlement,
or because of an indequate crown slope.
To correct these problems, the top soil and sod should be
removed and exisiting levee surface should be roughened. Add
water or dry the backfill materials as necessary to optimal
moisture content during compaction.
When the crest of the levee is used for recreation,
inspection, surveillance during floods, and flood fighting
activities, a surface treatment (e.g gravel crushed rock, etc.)
should be provided to reduce the deficiencies listed above.
j) Underseepage Control Berms
Underseepage control berms, also known as
seepage berms, perform two functions in controlling
seepage. 1st, they provide a downward weight to
counteract the upward force of the seepage pressure
within the foundation material adjacent to the levee
which is where the pressure is highest. 2nd, seepage
berms lengthen the seepage path, which increase the
flow resistance and decreases the seepage pressure in
the area beyond the berms.
k) Excavations
The removal of levee blanket

materials may endanger the levee by
increasing the potential for seepage or
stability problems. Excavation activities
within 100 feet of the levee should be
prohibited.
l) Utilities
During the installation of the utility,
care needs to be taken to ensure that pipes do
not leak, and that there is adequate
compaction around the utility. Once
installed, the utility trench will need to be
monitored for cracks, depressions,
settlements, sink holes, or saturated soils that
may indicate a leak or possible seepage along
the utility line.
m) Underseepage Relief Wells/Toe Drainage
Relief wells are used to relieve hydrostatic pressures
in the foundation of a levee, which is caused by fluctuation
in the water table or seepage under a levee or flood control
structure during a flood. Typical relief wells consist of a well
screen, a filter pack (granular material surrounding the well
screen),Maintenance
a riser, and an of relief
outlet wellsRelief
system. requires
wells,surging
overtime,
and pump less
can become testing of the
efficient well, and
at relieving comparing
hydrostatic the
pressures
because of cloggingwhen
results recorded of the the
filterwell
pack,was
sedimentation
initially build
up in the well screen, and/or bio-fouling. Clogging of the
installed.
filter pack and sedimentation within the relief well occurs
when the foundation materials migrates into the filter pack,
making it less permeable and reducing the wells
effectiveness. Biofouling is the build up of bacteria on the
well screen itself, reducing the area in the screen through
which water can flow.
n) Closure Structures
Closure structures must be in good repair.

Placing equipment, stoplogs, sandbags, and other
materials must be readily available at all times;
stored nearby on the protected side of the levee, or
stored on a trailer for quick transportation to the
site.
o) Internal Drainage Systems
Drainage ditches should be maintained to ensure that
the capacity of the ditch is not decreased by heavy vegetation
growth or sedimentation. As part of a good maintenance
program, the drainage ditches should be cleared at scheduled
intervals and restored to the original channel design grade
and cross section.
All flap gates, slide gates, and other gate systems need
to be inspected and lubricated at least once a year just before
the flood season. If gates are not seated properly, water will
flow back through the drainage structure during high water.
During the inspection, all gates should be manually operated,
and any debris or obstructions removed. All gates seats
should be checked and the frames readjusted if the gate is
not seating properly.
p) Pump Stations
Pump Stations should be inspected at lest
annually by the sponsor, preferably just before the
flood season, following the manufacturers
publications and recommendations on
maintenance.
Preventative maintenance includes adjusting,
lubricating, repairing, and replacing warn out or
defective parts.
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
Flood fighting is the term applied to the work
which is necessary during a flood to maintain the
effectiveness of a levee. Fast work and considerable
ingenuity are sometimes necessary to prevent failures,
and the necessary materials and equipments should
be kept available at all times.
Boils are checked by a ring of sandbags to create a pool causing a back
pressure to sufficient reduce the net head to the point where the flow
velocity is too low to cause the washing of the soil.
Bank caving may proceed unnoticed under the floodwater but, if
detected, may sometimes be controlled by dumping rocks, sandbags,
fascines of timber, or other material into the caving area. If seepage
causes a slide on the land side of the levee, this slope may be
strengthen with brush or timber weighted with sandbags.
A levee can be raised a foot or two with earth taken from the landslide
of the embankment or by sacks filled with soil. If further raising is
necessary, a timber wall supported by earth sandbags or a mudbox
filled with earth is usually necessary; plastic sheeting weighted with
sandbags is an effective temporary protection against erosion and
seepage on emergency fills. If the possibility of defensing the existing
levee seems poor, a setback levee may be constructed to contain the
flood waters which would enter through a break in the main levee.
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
T-walls (Cantilever Floodwalls)
I-walls
Gravity Floodwall
Butressed Floodwall
Counterfort Floodwall
Most common in residential applications

Reinforced-concrete cast-in-place or concrete
block
Stability is partially achieved thru the weight of
the soil on the heel portion
Reinforced concrete core is the principal structural
element of the wall
May be aesthetically altered with brick or other
I-walls
Gravity Floodwall
Butressed Floodwall
I-walls
used when the exposed wall height is relatively short,

usually less than 10 feet, but there are exceptions to this rule-
of-thumb.
used frequently as a transition section between levee and T-
wall monoliths used for closure structures
I-walls
Gravity Floodwall
Butressed Floodwall
Gravity Floodwall
Depends on its weight for stability

Resists overturning by the dead weight of the
concrete/masonry construction Resists sliding
Appropriate for low walls or lightly loaded walls Easy
to design and construct
Requires a large volume of material
I-walls
Gravity Floodwall
Butressed Floodwall
Butressed Floodwall
A buttressed wall is very similar to a
counterfort wall. The only difference between the
two is that the transverse support walls are located
on the side of the stem, opposite the retained
materials. The counterfort wall is more widely used
than the buttress because the support stem is
hidden beneath the retained material (soil or
water), whereas the buttress occupies what may
otherwise be usable space in front of the wall.
I-walls
Gravity Floodwall
Butressed Floodwall
A counterfort wall is similar to a cantilever

retaining wall except that it can be used where
the cantilever is long or when very high
pressures are exerted behind the wall.
Counterforts, or intermediate traverse support
bracing, are designed and built at intervals along
the wall and reduce the design forces.
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
Levee Failures Materials for
Levee Design and Floodwalls
Construction Steel Sheetpiling Walls
Levee Maintenance Floodwall Failures
Levee Flood Fighting Floodwall Design and
Construction
Some fundamental considerations in the choice
of materials for floodwalls are;
Visual Acceptability-this can be resolved by

cladding a structural wall with a decorative finish, the
choice of cladding on local circumstances and
planning permissions;
Durability-especially for those elements in frequent

contact with water (particularly for steel);
Resistance to vandalism-coping stones from brick
or masonry walls can be a target, but most other
forms of constructions are not prone to vandalism
that effects their correct functioning;
Use of recycled materials-should be considered,

where practicable (for example, second-hand
sheetpiles could be used for a cutoff where strength,
durability and visual appearance are less significant
issues than for exposed structural sheetpiling).
Durability is particularly an issue for those elements of
the structure that would be difficult to access for inspection or
repair during the life of the structure. Tie bars and anchor rods
are two such elements that requires a belt-and-braces
approach to corrosion protection because they cannot readily
be inspected (being below ground) and are expensive to
replace. Such elements should be designed to achieve or
exceed the service life of the structure without any
maintenance.
It is important that the cladding is fixed firmly to the
wall structure such that the risk of it becoming detached (as a
result of vandalism or accidental damage) is small. For the side
of the wall that will be in contact with water during floods, the
use of stainless steel is recommended for any shear
connectors.
Although steel is often the preferred material for sheetpiling,
alternatives are now readily available including plastic (vinyl)
and composites that do not suffer from corrosion. The most
important design issues for sheetpiling are:
Strength for driving;
Durability;
Strength insitu;
Visual appearance;
Resistance to corrosion and often forms of deterioration;
Resistance to impact damage;
Cost.
It is common for flood defense schemes to make use of recycled
steel sheetpiles, thereby reducing the overall environmental
impact and saving cost.
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
Particular issues with the use of steel sheetpiling for floodwalls
include;
Corrosion, especially in saline water-special measures may need
to be taken if the corrosion risk is high,
Driving conditions-hard driving through dense gravels or
obstructions may require a much heavier duty pile than required
for the performance of the flood defense;
The advisability of avoiding cantilever sheetpiles except for the
lowest of floodwalls(they tend to lesn out over time);
The design of tie to resist corrosion and to accept settlement of
the backfill behind the wall;
The risk of erosion of the riverbed in front of the wall, reducing
the restraining forces in foundation.
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
Floodwall Failures
Failures modes for T-walls are generally
separated in three broad categories: global
instability, structural performance, and
underseepage/piping. Global instability refers to
overturning , sliding, and bearing capacity.
Structural performance relates to excessive
moment and shear forces failing the structural wall
section. Underseepage and piping involves the
movement of foundation soils below the wall causing
a loss of wall foundation support and subsequent
stability failure.
T-wall Global Instability - Overturning Analysis
When assessing the overturning stability of a

T-wall, the resultant location of the vertical force
acting along the base slab of wall must be
detetmined. This information can be used to
determine how much of the base slab is acting un
compression. If the resultant is located outside the
limits of the base slab, then it is no longer acting in
compression and traditional limit state for
overturning is exceeded.
T-Wall Global Instability - Sliding Analysis
The same forces that contributes to or resist

overturning failures also contribute to or resist sliding
failures. Lateral forces (earth pressure, water pressure)
push the wall in one direction or the other vertical
forces (concrete weight, soil weight, uplift, etc). Limit
equilibrium is used to assess the stability aginst sliding
.
T-Wall Global Instability- Bearing Capacity
The loading conditions used to assess the overturning analysis

are used for assessing bearing capacity. The bearing capacity
should be analyzed for the same plane analyzed as part of
sliding analysis. A normal and tangent force is computed for the
structural wedge along the bearing plane. These forces are used
to check the bearing capacity.
T-Wall Structural Performance-
Moment and Shear Capacity
The structural performance failure modes for a floodwall are
caused by either excessive moment and/or shear forces acting
on the floodwall. The moment generated by the forces acting
the structure need to be resisted by the floodwall. Moment
resistance (capacity) is primarily applied by steel reinforcement
within the wall section. The moment capacity provided by the
steel reinforcement should be checked against the moment
(demand) caused by loading.the concrete can provide a
minimal amount of moment capacity that can be considered in
situations there the moment capacity provided by the steel
reinforcement is close to that associated with moment demand
generated by the loading on the wall, particularly for exteme
load ranges.
T-Wall Underseepage/Piping
Most flood defenses are constructed on foundation that
are permeable to some degree. Its means there will be some
seepage under the defense when the defense is under hydraulic
loading(that is , when the water level on the river side is higher
than on the defended side).
The seepage can range from an inconsequential damp
patch on the landward side of the defense to complete failure of
the defense due to piping. The hydraulic forces that drive
seepage to result in uplift pressure on the underside of a flood
defense structure.
A Cutoff is used where the seepage under the defense
would be unacceptable , either because the seepage water
would itself create a flooding or nuisance problem , or because
it could estabilized the wall or embankment as a result of water
pressure or the erosion of foundation material.
**Illustration Not Available
page 34, Figure 5.15
Uplift and Seepage
This diagram represent the flow of water under a

floodwall. The equipotential lines represent the drop in pressure
and the flow lines represent the seepage paths. In this illustrative
example 30% of the differential hydrostatic head (H) is
dissipated over the depth of the wall base on the landward yields
a high exit gradient and hence the potential for piping.
Note that the uplift pressure at point A. is calculated as (h-
0.4H).It is the hydrostatic head(h) less the dissipation of
differential head (40% of H).
**Illustration Not Available
page 34, Figure 5.16
Effect of a cut-off
The cutoff ( in this case positioned on the landward side of the

wall) has two impacts.
1.it is increase the seepage path length and thus reduces the exit
gradient(the rate of dissipation of head in the soil on the
defended side ), in this case to about half: but,
2.it is also increases the uplift pressure under the base of the
wall(which acts together with the horizontal hydrostatic force to
overturn the wall )
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
1.Field Investigation for Floodwalls
2.Floodwall Design
3.Floodwall Appurtenances
4.Floodwall Seepage and Leakage
5.Floodwall Construction
1. Field Investigation for Floodwalls
Detailed information must be obtained about
the site and existing structure to make decisions and
calculations concerning the design of a floodwall.
Once the designer has developed the low point of
entry and site and utility survey information, a
conceptual design of the proposed floodwall can be
discussed with the homeowner. This discussion
should cover the following items:
previous floods and which areas were flooded or affected by
floods;
a plan of action as to which opening(s) and walls of the
structure can be protected by a floodwall and floodwall
closures;
evidence of seepage/cracking in foundation walls, which
would indicate the need to relieve hydrostatic pressure on the
foundation;
a plan of action to use a floodwall to relieve hydrostatic
pressure on the foundation and other exterior walls;
the various floodwall options and conceptual designs that
would provide the necessary flood protection;
a plan of action as to which utilities need to be adjusted or
floodproofed as a result of the floodwall; and
a plan of action for construction activity and access/egress to
convey to the owner the level of disruption to be expected.
2.Floodwall Design
2. Floodwall Design
The design of floodwalls consists of the proper
selection and sizing of the actual floodwall and the
specification of appurtenances such as drainage
systems; waterproof materials to stop seepage and
leakage; and miscellaneous details to meet site and
homeowner preferences for patios, steps, wall facings,
and support of other overhead structures (posts and
columns). The following sections describe both a
detailed design and a simplified design approach.
Floodwall Design (Selection and Sizing)
The structural design of a

floodwall to resist anticipated flood
and flood-related forces follows the
eight-step process.
(Selection and Sizing)
Reporters:
Lintag, Manny
Gonzales, Jonas
Pangan, Joshua
STEP Determine:
1. Wall height
1 2. Footing depth
STEP Determine:
1 1. Wall height
2. Footing depth
a. Determine wall height based on the DFE or

BFE plus 1 foot of freeboard, whichever is
greater.
b. Determine minimum footing depth based on

the frost depth, local code requirements, and
the soil conditions. The footing should rest on
suitable natural soil or on controlled and
engineered backfill material.
STEP Determine:
1. Wall height
1 2. Footing depth
STEP Assume dimensions:

1. Wall height
2 2. Footing width and
thickness
2 1. Wall height
2. Footing width and thickness
a. The choice of wall thickness depends on the wall material,

the strength of the material, and the height of the wall. Typical
wall thicknesses are 8, 12, and 16 inches for masonry, concrete,
or masonry/ concrete walls.
b. The footing width depends on the magnitude of the lateral
forces, allowable soil bearing capacity, dead load, and the wall
height. The typical footing width is the proposed wall height.
Typically, the footing is located under the wall in such a
manner that 1/3 of its width forms the toe and 2/3 of the width
forms the heel of the wall as shown in the proceeding figure.
Typical footing thicknesses are based upon strength
requirements and include 8, 12, and 16 inches.
STEP Determine:
1. Wall height
1 2. Footing depth

1. Wall height
thickness
STEP Calculate forces:

1. Lateral
3 2. Vertical
Calculate forces:
STEP
1. Lateral
3 2. Vertical
There are two types of forces acting on the wall and its
footing: lateral and vertical.
a. Lateral forces: These forces are mainly the hydrostatic

and differential soil/water forces on the heel side of the wall,
and the saturated soil force on the toe side of the wall.
b. Vertical forces: The vertical forces are buoyancy and the

various weights of the wall, footing, soil, and water acting
upward and downward on the floodwall.
The buoyancy force, f buoy, acting at the bottom of the footing is
computed as:
The gravity forces acting downward are:
the unit weight of floodwall (wwall)
the unit weight of the footing (wftg)
the unit weight of the soil over the toe (wst)
the unit weight of the soil over the heel (wsh)
and the unit weight of the water above the heel (wwh)
The total gravity forces acting downward, wG, can be
computed as the sum of the individual gravity forces.
Therefore, the net vertical force, f v, is then calculated as:

STEP Determine:
1. Wall height
1 2. Footing depth

1. Wall height
thickness

1. Lateral
3 2. Vertical
STEP Calculate factor of

safety against sliding
4 FS(SL)
STEP Calculate factor of safety against sliding
4
FS(SL)
This step involves the computation of the sliding forces,
the forces resisting sliding, and the factor of safety against
sliding. For a stable condition, the sum of forces resisting sliding
should be larger than the sum of the sliding forces.
a. Sliding Forces
b. Resisting Forces
c. Frictional Force
d. Cohesion Force
e. Saturated Soil Force Over the Toe
f. Factor of Safety Against Sliding
a. Sliding Forces
This is the sum of the sliding (lateral hydrostatic,
hydrodynamic, and impact) forces, fcomb, is computed as follows:
hydrodynamic force against the

differential soil/water force acting duedue
structure to combined
to high velocity
free-standing water and saturated soil conditions
flood flows
lateral hydrostatic force due

equivalent
to standing
hydrostatic
water pressure
due to low velocity flood flows
b. Resisting Forces
The forces resistant to sliding are the frictional force, ffr,
between the bottom of the footing; the cohesion force, fc,
between the footing and the soil; and the soil and the saturated
soil force, fp, over the toe of the footing.
c. Frictional Force
d. Cohesion Force
e. Saturated Soil Force Over the Toe
f. Factor of Safety Against Sliding

STEP Determine:
1. Wall height
1 2. Footing depth
Change
footing.
(Lower/
STEP Assume dimensions: increase
1. Wall height heel or
2 2. Footing width and toe
thickness lengths.

1. Lateral
3 2. Vertical

4 FS(SL)
safety against
5 overturning. FS(OT)
Is FS(SL) > 1.5?
Calculate factor of safety against
STEP
overturning. FS(OT)
5
The potential for overturning should be checked about
the bottom of the toe. For a stable condition, the sum of
resisting moments, MR, should be larger than the sum of the
overturning moments, MO. The ratio of MR over MO is called
the Factor of Safety against overturning, FS(OT).
STEP Determine:
1. Wall height
1 2. Footing depth
Change
footing.
(Lower/
1. Wall height heel or
2 2. Footing width and toe
thickness lengths.

1. Lateral
3 STEP Calculate eccentricity
2. Vertical
of the resultant
6 forces, e
STEP Calculate factor of Is FS(OT) > 1.5?

4 FS(SL)
safety against
Is FS(SL) > 1.5?
STEP
Calculate eccentricity of the resultant forces, e
6
The final resultant of all the forces acting on the wall
and its footing is a force acting at a distance, e, from the
centerline of the footing. This distance, e, is known as
eccentricity.
STEP Determine:
1. Wall height
1 2. Footing depth
Change
footing.
(Lower/
1. Wall height heel or Calculate soil
2 toe
STEP
2. Footing width and pressures,
thickness lengths. 7 g (max & min)
Is e > (footing width/6)?

1. Lateral
2. Vertical
of the resultant
6 forces, e

4 FS(SL)
safety against
Is FS(SL) > 1.5?
Calculate soil pressures,
STEP
q (max & min)
7
STEP Determine:
1. Wall height STEP Select reinforcing
1 2. Footing depth steel
8
Change
footing.
(Lower/
Is q(max) > allowable soil capacity?
STEP Assume dimensions: Increase
1. Wall height heel or Calculate soil
2 toe
STEP
2. Footing width and pressures,
thickness lengths. 7 g (max & min)
Is e > (footing width/6)?

1. Lateral
2. Vertical
of the resultant
6 forces, e

4 FS(SL)
safety against
Is FS(SL) > 1.5?
STEP
Select reinforcing steel
8
Select an appropriate reinforcing steel size and spacing
to resist the expected bending moment, Mb. The crosssectional
area of steel reinforcing required can be computed by:
Typical floodwall reinforcing steel configuration
(Simplified Approach)
Reporters:
Lintag, Manny
Gonzales, Jonas
Pangan, Joshua
In these calculations, the following
assumptions have been made:
wall and footing are of concrete;
wall thickness (twall) = 1.0 foot;
footing thickness (tftg) = 1.0 foot;
minimal debris impact potential;
minimal velocity (<5 feet per second);
and
reinforcing consists of #4 steel bars on 12-
inch centers in both the wall and footing.
2.Floodwall Design
Floodwall Appurtenances
Floodwall appurtenances include drainage
systems, stair details, wall facings, patios, existing
structure connections (sealants), existing structure
support (posts and columns), and closure details.
Each will be discussed with illustrations, details, and
photographs provided to help the designer develop
details that meet the needs of their specific situation.
The designer is reminded that it is likely that a local
building code may have standards for the design and
construction of many of these items.
Floodwall Closures
Watertight closures must be provided for all access
openings such as driveways, stairs, and ramps, and seals
should be provided for all utility penetrations.
The type of closure used depends primarily on the size
of the opening that needs to be protected. This will determine
the type of material to be used and how the closure is to be
constructed and operated.
It is absolutely essential that closures be made
watertight. This is normally accomplished through the use of
some type of gasket. Neoprene and rubber are commonly used,
but there are a number of other materials readily available that
perform equally as well.
The successful performance of a closure system also
requires that it be held firmly against the opening being
protected.
Whatever material is used, it must be of sufficient

strength and thickness to resist bending and deflection failures.
The ability of a specific material to withstand bending stresses
may be substantially different from its ability to withstand
deflection stresses. Therefore, to provide for an adequate factor
of safety, the required closure thickness should be calculated
twice: first taking into account bending stresses, and second
taking into account deflection stresses. The resulting
thicknesses should be compared and the larger value specified
in the final closure design.
Drainage Systems
When designing a floodwall system, the designer must
verify that it will not cause the flooding of adjacent property by
blocking normal drainage.
The flood protection design should be developed to

divert both floodwater and normal rainfall away from the
structure. By directing the floodwater and rainfall away from
the structure, the designer can minimize potential erosion,
scour, impacts, and water ponding. Typical design provisions
include:
regrading the site;
sloping applications; and
drainage system(s).
Included in the drainage system application is a
backflow valve. The unit, sometimes referred to as a check
valve, is a type of valve that allows water to flow one way, but
automatically closes when water attempts to flow in the
opposite direction.
2.Floodwall Design
Floodwall Seepage and Leakage
Floodwalls should be designed and
constructed to minimize seepage and leakage
during the design flood. Without proper
design considerations, floodwalls are
susceptible to seepage through the floodwall,
seepage under the floodwall, leakage between
the floodwall and residence, and leakage
through any opening in the floodwall.
Seepage Through The Floodwall
All expansion and construction joints shall be
constructed with appropriate waterstops and joint sealing
materials. To prevent excess seepage at the tension zones, the
maximum deflection of any structural floor slab or exterior wall
shall not exceed 1/500 of its shorter span.
Seepage Under The Floodwall

The structure design may also include the use of
impervious barriers or cutoffs under floodwalls to decrease the
potential for the development of full hydrostatic pressures and
related seepage. These cutoffs must be connected to the
impervious membrane of the building walls to effectively
operate.
Leakage Between The Floodwall and Residence
The connection between the existing house wall
and the floodwall is normally not a fixed connection,
because the floodwall footing is not structurally tied to
the house foundation footing. Therefore, a gap or
expansion joint may exist between the two structures
that creates the potential for leakage. This gap should
be filled with a waterproof material that will work
during seasonal freeze-thaw cycles.
2.Floodwall Design
Floodwall Construction
During the construction of a floodwall, periodic
confirm adequate slope drainage, including drain pipes, patio,
inspections should be conducted to ensure that the flood
and grading outside the floodwall;
protection measure has been built per the original design intent.
confirm that floodwall foundation was prepared in accordance
As a minimum, the designer, owner, or owners representative
with plans and specifications;
should inspect and observe the following improvements:
confirm that sealants, waterproofing, and caulking were
applied per the manufacturers requirements for installation;
confirm that the sump pump is operational;
check sample brick or decorative block (before installation)
for patterns or match to existing conditions; and
confirm that a maintenance requirement checklist was
developed and used that included all of the manufacturers
recommendations for passive flood protection applications,
sealants, drains, etc.
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
Floodwall
Performance Other
Considerations
LEVEES FLOODWALLS
Some good
things are not
meant to last.
End of Report

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Levees and Floodwalls

are barriers that hold back floodwaters. A levee

Low Water Channel

Riverside Land Low Water Levee Protected Lowland

1.Standard Levee Design Criteria;

1. Locate Utility Lines That Cross Under the Levee

The major reason for the inclusion of these

Import Fill Cubic Yards DrainTile (8-10diameter PVC/ Linear

Compact Fill Cubic Yards Discharge Piping (1-2diameter Linear

Sod Stripping Topsoil

Steel Drain Gate Valve

Dig Inspection Trench

1.Levee Soil Suitability

Most types of soils are suitable for

1.Levee Soil Suitability

1.Levee Soil Suitability

The levee should be

1.Levee Soil Suitability

A principle concern for the construction of

1.Levee Soil Suitability

Excavations, structures, or other obstruction

Any accumulations of drift, grass clippings, and other

It is important to closely monitor and evaluate all

The removal of levee blanket

Closure structures must be in good repair.

Most common in residential applications

used when the exposed wall height is relatively short,

Depends on its weight for stability

A counterfort wall is similar to a cantilever

Visual Acceptability-this can be resolved by

Durability-especially for those elements in frequent

Use of recycled materials-should be considered,

When assessing the overturning stability of a

The same forces that contributes to or resist

The loading conditions used to assess the overturning analysis

This diagram represent the flow of water under a

The cutoff ( in this case positioned on the landward side of the

The structural design of a

a. Determine wall height based on the DFE or

b. Determine minimum footing depth based on

STEP Assume dimensions:

a. The choice of wall thickness depends on the wall material,

STEP Assume dimensions:

STEP Calculate forces:

a. Lateral forces: These forces are mainly the hydrostatic

b. Vertical forces: The vertical forces are buoyancy and the

Therefore, the net vertical force, f v, is then calculated as:

STEP Assume dimensions:

STEP Calculate forces:

STEP Calculate factor of

hydrodynamic force against the

lateral hydrostatic force due

f. Factor of Safety Against Sliding

STEP Calculate forces:

STEP Calculate factor of

STEP Calculate forces:

STEP Calculate factor of Is FS(OT) > 1.5?

Is e > (footing width/6)?

STEP Calculate factor of Is FS(OT) > 1.5?

Is e > (footing width/6)?

STEP Calculate factor of Is FS(OT) > 1.5?

Whatever material is used, it must be of sufficient

The flood protection design should be developed to

Seepage Under The Floodwall