s

8
Bonding,
I want youtheto
way atoms
meet are attracted
a friend to
of mine?
each other to form molecules,
determines nearly all of the chemical
properties we see. And, as we shall see,
the number 8 is very important to
chemical bonding.
Additional slides By Paul Surko, New Dimensions High School,Poinciana, FL
What are Molecules?
Molecules are a combination
of atoms bonded together.
Bonding determines the
chemical properties of the
molecule (compound).
Ionic Bonding-Being Like the Noble Gases
All atoms want to have the same number of electrons as the
Noble Gases. The Noble Gases have very stable electron
configurations. In order to achieve the same electron
configuration as the Noble Gases metal atoms will give up
electrons to form positive ions (cations) and non-metal atoms
will receive or take additional electrons to become negative
ions (anions). IONS are charged particles.

Na becomes Na+ Mg becomes Mg+2 Al becomes Al+3

Cl becomes Cl- O becomes O-2 N becomes N-3

The positive and negative ions are attracted to each

other electrostatically.
Opposites Attract!
Putting Ions Together
Na+ + Cl- = NaCl Ca+2 + Cl- = CaCl2
Ca+2 + O-2= CaO Na+ + O-2 = Na2O
Al+3 + S-2 = Al2S3 Ca+2 + N-3 = Ca3N2
You try these!
Li+ + Br- = LiBr Mg+2 + F- = MgF2
Al+3 + I- = AlI3 NH4+ + PO4-3 = (NH4)3PO4
Sr+2 + P-3 = Sr3P2 Not NH43PO4
K+ + Cl- = KCl
The Covalent Bond
Atoms can form molecules by sharing electrons in the
covalent bond. This is done only among non-metal
atoms.
 Lewis Structures (Gilbert Lewis
1916): atomic symbols represent
nuclei and inner-shell electrons,
dot-pairs or dashes between two
http://photos.aip.org/history/Thum
atomic symbols represent
bnails/lewis_gilbert_b1.jpg
electron pairs in covalent bonds,
Single, and dots adjacent to only one
double atomic symbol represent
unshared electrons (also called
and
lone pairs).
triple
bonds A structural formula does not
are include the unshared pairs of
possible. electrons on the atoms in the
molecule.
Electron dot notation is an electron configuration
notation in which only the valence electrons of an atom
of a particular element are shown, indicated by dots
placed around the elements.

Li Be B C

N O F Ne
Rules for drawing Lewis structures:
Determine the type and number of atoms in the molecule.
Write the electron-dot notation for each type of atom in the
molecule.
Determine the number of total number of valence electrons
available.
Arrange the atoms to form a skeleton structure for the molecule. If
carbon is present, it is usually the central atom. Otherwise, the
least-electronegative atom is central (except for H and F which
always occupy terminal positions). Then connect the atoms by
electron-pair bonds. (single bond ( [sigma] bond where the electron
density is concentrated along the internuclear axis; i.e. it is the first
bond formed between two atoms*)
Add unshared pairs of electrons so that each atom completes its
octet, except H, of course.
Count the electrons in the structure to be sure that the number of
valence electrons equals the number available.
*A [pi] bond is where electron density is concentrated above and
below the line joining the bonded atoms; in other words it is any
double and/or triple bond. pp.185-186 in textbook
Octet Rule: chemical compounds tend to form
so that each atom, by gaining, losing, or sharing
electrons, has an octet of electrons in its highest
occupied energy level. (i.e. like a noble gas). This
involves electrons in the s and p subshells.

Exceptions to the octet rule:

Hydrogen 2 electrons in its outermost shell, as
it wants to be like helium. Boron only has 3
electrons.

An expanded octet describes compounds

where atoms have more than eight electrons in
their outermost shell. In these cases, bonding
involves s, p and d electrons.
Rules to Write Dot Structures
1. Write a skeleton molecule with the lone atom in the
middle (Hydrogen can never be in the middle)
2. Find the number of electrons needed (N)
(8 x number of atoms, 2 x number of H atoms)
3. Find the number of electrons you have (valence e-'s)
(H)
4. Subtract to find the number of bonding electrons (N-
H=B)
5. Subtract again to find the number of non-bonding
electrons (H-B=NB)
6. Insert minimum number of bonding electrons in the
skeleton between atoms only. Add more bonding if
needed until you have B bonding electrons.
7. Insert needed non-bonding electrons around (not
between) atoms so that all atoms have 8 electrons
around them. The total should be the same as NB in 5
above.
 Let's Try it!
1.S
H O H
2.N 2 x 2 = 4 for Hydrogen Water H2O
1 x 8 = 8 for Oxygen
4+8=12 needed
electrons 12 N
3. H 2 x 1 = 2 for Hydrogen - 8H
1 x 6 = 6 for Oxygen
You have 8 available electrons - 4B
4. B 12 - 8 = 4 bonding electrons 4 NB

5. NB 8 4 = 4 non-bonding electrons H:O:H

.. ..
6. E H:O:H H:O:H


 Let's Try it!
H
1.S HNH
Ammonia NH3
2.N 3 x 2 = 6 for Hydrogen
1 x 8 = 8 for Nitrogen
6+8=14 needed electrons
14 N
3.H 3 x 1 = 3 for Hydrogen - 8H
1 x 5 = 5 for Nitrogen
You have 8 available electrons - 6B
4.B 14 - 8 = 6 bonding electrons 2 NB
5.NB 8 6 = 2 non-bonding electrons H
..
H:N:H
6.E H
..
H:N:H H
..

H:N:H

 Let's Try it!
Carbon Dioxide CO2
1.S OCO
1 x 8 = 8 for Carbon
2.N 2 x 8 = 16 for Oxygen
8+16=24 needed electrons 24 N
1 x 4 = 4 for Carbon - 16 H
3.H
2 x 6 = 12 for Oxygen
You have 16 available electrons - 8B
8 NB
4.B 24 - 16 = 8 bonding electrons

5.NB 16 8 = 8 non-bonding O::C::O

electrons
6.E .. .. .. ..
O::C::O

O::C::O


H2 CH3Cl

HF
CH2O

O2

N2 HCN
Polyatomic ions (a charged
group of covalently bonded
atoms) and coordinate
covalent bonds (bonds
where both bonding electrons
come from one atom)
NH3 + HCl NH4 + Cl
+ -

+ +
 Let's Try it!
O
1.S OCO Carbonate CO3-2
3 x 8 = 24 for Oxygen
2.N 1 x 8 = 8 for Carbon
24+8=32 needed electrons 32 N
3 x 6 = 18 for Oxygen - 24 H
3.H
1 x 4= 4 for Carbon - 8B
You have 22 + 2 more available e-'s
16 NB
4.B 32 - 24 = 8 bonding electrons
O
..
5.NB 24 8 = 16 non-bonding O::C:O
electrons ..
..
6.E :O: -2 .. :O:
.. ..
.. .. .. O::C: O:
O::C:

O:

 Resonance structures:
Structures used to represent molecules or ions
that cannot be correctly represented by one
Lewis structure. The real molecule, or ion, is
actually an average of the different Lewis
structures that are possible for the molecule or
ion.
Examples: SO3

[1]

[1] http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/chemistry/Inorganicchemistry/Informationbonding/bondingindex/Resonance/SO3.gif
NO2 -

NO3- (a polyatomic ion)

[1] http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Bonding/Resonance-NO2.GIF
[2] http://www.tannerm.com/images/lewis13.gif
Polarity-Unequal Sharing of Electrons
Even though all atoms want the same number of
electrons as the Noble Gases, some want to get or give
them more than others. The magnitude of this attraction
for electrons is called Electronegativity. The more
electronegative an atom is, the more it wants the
electrons.
Some atoms
want to gain
electrons so
bad, they take
them altogether
to form
negative ions.
Some want to
lose them so
bad that they
become
positive ions.
Examples of Polar and Non-Polar
Compounds
HCl The Chlorine wants the electrons more than the
Hydrogen. Thus we have +HCl-.
NaCl Since Na is a metal it gives up its electron to form
Na+ and Cl takes the electron completely to form Cl-.
Cl2 (ClCl) The Chlorine molecules want the electrons
equally so they form a non-polar molecule with NO partial
or full charges.
H2O Water is a bent molecule. The lone pair of electrons
from the Lewis structure distorts its shape and it ..
becomes a very polar molecule. :O:H
.. ..

O::C::O H


CO2 Carbon Dioxide is a linear molecule. It has no lone
pairs of electrons from the Lewis structure. The two
oxygen atoms pull equally and make it a non-polar
molecule.
Polarity refers to unequal distribution
of charge/electrons
Electronegativity Percentage Classification
difference ionic of bond
character
0.0-0.3 0-5% Nonpolar
covalent
0.3-1.7 5-50% Polar
covalent
More than 1.7 50- Ionic
100%*
*This percentage may vary; the higher the percentage, the more
ionic in character the bond is.
The polarity of molecules is designated in drawings with
a - (for a partial negative charge) or + (for a partial
positive charge).
Property Ionic Molecular Metallic
(those with
covalent
bonds)
Typical Crystal lattice Gases, Solid (one
physical solid liquids, and liquid Hg);
state low m.p. shiny
solids appearance
Melting High with Low Variable
point and large variation
boiling between the
point two
Texture Brittle, easily Soft, waxy Ductile and
broken/sharp consistency malleable
edges
 Property Ionic Molecular Metallic
(those with
covalent
bonds)
Electrical Solid phase No High
conductivity no electrical
Molten or and thermal
aqueous conductivity
phase - yes
Basic unit Formula Molecule Electron
unit sea
delocalized
electrons
Elements Metals and Usually Non- Metals only
involved non-metals metals
Ions will form a crystal lattice
structure (an orderly arrangement
of ions that minimizes their
potential energy.

Lattice energy is the energy

released when one mole of an
ionic crystalline compound is
formed from gaseous ions.

An ionic compound whose aqueous

solution conducts electricity is
called an electrolyte.
 A molecule is a neutral group of atoms (usually of
similar electronegativities) that are held together by
covalent bonds.

A chemical formula indicates the relative number of

atoms of each kind in a chemical compound by using
atomic symbols and numerical subscripts.
Covalent bonds are
formed when the
attractive forces
between protons and
electrons are stronger
than the proton-proton
or electron-electron
repulsive forces.
chem.unsw.edu.au
Bond length is the distance
between two bonded atoms at
their minimum potential energy,
that is, the average distance
between two bonded atom.
Bond energy is the energy
required to break a chemical
bond and form neutral isolated
atoms.
VSEPR theory
and
Hybridization
VSEPR Theory

Revisiting What do we know?

Electrostatic Interactions
(a)Like charges repel
one another

(b) Electron clouds are

comprised of many
negative charges

Electron clouds must repel one another!

VSEPR Theory
Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion Theory
states that in a molecule, non-bonded electron pairs
will repel one another and position themselves as far
apart, in 3D space, as possible.

Several standard molecular shapes result.

Assignment of a shape depends on the number

of lone electron pairs on the central atom of a
molecule.
Molecular * Lone Pair Electron Clouds
are larger than shared,
Shapes covalent bonds. *

# Lone
Pairs
#
Bonds
Bond
Angle
Name
Using Lewis structures,
0 2 180 Linear balloons and
0 3 120 Trigonal protractors, fill out the
Planar
0 4 109.5 Tetrahedral table with bond angles
1 3 <109.5
Trigonal
pyramidal
for the following
2 2 <109.5 Bent compounds:

HCN H2CO3 CH4 NF3 Cl2O

Using simple logic, try to match these structures with the following names:
Bent, Tetrahedral, Linear, Trigonal Planar, Trigonal Pyramidal
 Linear
Tetrahedral

Trigonal Planar
Trigonal
Pyramidal

Trigonal
Bent Bipyramidal
Examples of hybridization
BeF2 sp hybrid orbital, 180 bond angle,
bond lengths equal, linear shape

2p

sp
2s

1s

Be ground state F approaches final state

BF3 sp2 hybrid orbital, 120 bond angle, 3
identical bonds, trigonal planar shape

2p

sp2
2s

1s

B ground state F approaches final state

CH4 sp3 hybrid orbital, 109.5 bond angle,
identical bond lengths, tetrahedral shape

2p
sp3
2s

1s

C ground state hypothetical hybridized

intermediate state
sp3 hybrid orbitals in H2O and NH3; bond
angles are affected by unbonded electron pairs
on the oxygen and nitrogen atoms; these
angles are 104.5 and 107 respectively.

Oxygen nitrogen
SF6, 90 bond angle, identical bond lengths, and
octahedral shape.

3d

sp3d2
3p

3s

2p
2s
1s
Intermolecular forces: Forces of
attraction between molecules.
Covalent network
solids are solids where
atoms are connected
only by covalent bonds.
These solids are
typically brittle,
nonconductors of heat
or electricity, and
extremely hard.
Examples are quartz
and diamond.
Ion-dipole
forces exist
between an ion
and the partial
charge on the end
of a polar
molecule. Ex.
[1]

http://www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1045/notes/Forces/Intermol/iondip.gif

NaCl in water.
Dipole-dipole forces:
forces of attraction
between polar molecules.
Hydrogen bonding: the
intermolecular force in which
a hydrogen atom that is
bonded to a highly
electronegative atom
(typically O, N, or F) is
attracted to an unshared pair
of electrons of an
electronegative atom in a
nearby molecule. This
accounts for relatively high
boiling points of substances
in which these bonds exist.
(i.e. H2O)
[1] http://academics.vmi.edu/chem_jt/CH131/interm9.gif
London dispersion forces (Fritz
London 1930): instantaneous
dipoles. Exist in all molecules,
only ones among noble-gases and
nonpolar molecules. Strength
increases with increasing mass.[1]

[1]

http://osulibrary.oregonstate.ed
u/specialcollections/coll/nonsp
coll/catalogue/portrait-london-
150w.jpg (Fritz London, 1928)

chemphys.gcsu.edu
Van der Waals
forces (Johannes
van der Waals
1837 - 1923):
inclusive name for
dipole-dipole forces,
London dispersion
forces, and
hydrogen-bonding
forces. Nobel Prize [1] http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3068/2553691748_4df2900125.jpg

Physics 1910.
Metallic solids
Electron sea model
High electrical and thermal
conductivity
Great variation in mp
(higher + charge higher
mp)
Malleable and ductile
Metallic bonding animation
http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=XHV9LzCH2KA
http://image.tutorvista.com/content/chemical-
bonding/electron-sea-model.gif