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HYDROLOGY

HYDROLOGY
is the scientific study of the waters of the
earth including their occurrence,
distribution in space and time, and their
relation to people and the natural
environments.
is a branch of geophysics which has the
objective of measuring and
understanding the physical and chemical
processes which control the movement of
water through the water cycle.
Hydrologic cycle or
Water cycle
is a process of continuous
circulation of water
between the oceans,
atmosphere, biosphere,
and the soils and rocks of
the geosphere.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
PROCESSES:
1. Evaporation is a gradual process in
which something is changed from liquid
to gas
2. Condensation is a process by which
vapor lose heat and changes into a liquid
3. Precipitation rain, snow, or hail, all of
which are formed by condensation of
moisture in the atmosphere and fall to
the ground
PROCESSES:
4. Percolation - to make a liquid or gas
pass through a porous substance
5. Runoff water not absorbed by the soil
and flows into surface waters
6. Infiltration movement of water through
the soil surface into the soil
7. Sublimation - a chemical process in
which a solid substance is converted
into a gas directly, without passing
through an intermediate liquid phase
PROCESSES:
8. Transpiration - biological process in
which water evaporates from a plant,
especially through tiny openings called
stomata on the surfaces of leaves.
9. Advection - the horizontal transfer of a
property such as heat, caused by air
movement
10. Groundwater flow movement of water
underneath the soil surface from higher
to lower elevation or pressure
Precipitation
The formation of precipitation begins with the
condensation of water vapor to form clouds
when the air is cooled to its dew point by:
mixing with colder air (frontal precipitation)
ascending due to atmospheric instability
(convective precipitation), or
being forced to rise due to air movement
over high ground (orographic precipitation).
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
Drizzle or mist Snow
Rain Snow pellets
Glaze Hail
Rime Ice pellets
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Convective precipitation is brought about
by heating of the air at the interface of the
ground and is typical of the tropics.
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Orographic precipitation results from the
mechanical lifting of moist horizontal air
currents over natural barriers such as
mountain ranges.
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Frontal / Cyclonic precipitation is
associated with the movement of air masses
from high pressure regions to low pressure
regions created by the unequal heating of
the earths surface.
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION

Rain gauges are


cylindrical in form, has
a leakproof rim placed
above a funnel which
leads to a receiver
having a narrow neck
into which the funnel
fits to reduce
evaporation loss.
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
Rainfall recorders provide information on
onset, duration and intensity of precipitation
and are used in areas where daily readings
are a problem. The most common types are
tilting siphon, tipping bucket and the
weighing type.
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
Snow gauges snow can be measured by
gauges or by measuring snow depth on the
ground. The water equivalent of snow is on
average: 1 cm of snow = 1 mm of water.
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
Radar measurement - makes possible the
detection of hurricanes, tornadoes, and
other severe storms over distances of
several hundred kilometers.
Satellite estimates indirect method of
measuring precipitation where estimates are
based on relating brightness of cloud
photographs to rainfall intensities.
AVERAGE PRECIPITATION
1. Arithmetic mean
the simplest method of
estimating average
precipitation by computing
the arithmetic average of
the recorded precipitation
values at stations in or
near the area.

37.1 + 48.8 + 68.3 + 114.3 + 75.7 + 127


= 78.5 mm
6
AVERAGE PRECIPITATION
2. Thiessen method
AVERAGE PRECIPITATION
3. Isohyetal method
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Transpiration ( T ) - consists of the
vaporization of liquid water contained in
the plant tissues and the vapor removal
to the atmosphere.
Evaporation ( Ev ) - is a process
whereby liquid water is converted to water
vapor (vaporization) and removed from
the evaporating surface (vapor removal).
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Evapotranspiration (ET) - is defined as
the combined process of transpiration
by the plant, and evaporation from the soil
or free water surface.
Types of Evapotranspiration
1. Potential evapotranspiration (PET)
is the rate of ET from a well watered
cropped field or where there is no
limitation in water availability

Flooded Crop
Types of Evapotranspiration
2. Actual evapotranspiration (AET)
refers to the amount of water actually
evapotranspired from a soil-water-plant
system where water supply is limiting
(usually below field capacity)

Non-flooded Crop
Factors affecting evapotranspiration
1. Weather parameters
(radiation, air temperature, humidity, and wind
speed)
2. Crop characteristics (crop type, variety, and
development stage).
3. Cultural management and
environmental factors
Soil salinity, soil fertility and soil management, soil
moisture content, soil water holding capacity,
cultivation practices, use of mulches and types of
irrigation will significantly affect the ETo.
Methods of Determining
Evapotranspiration (ET)

1. FAO PenmanMonteith Equation

Etp = (/+) ( Rn + G) + (/+) (15.36)


(w1+w2u2) (es ea)
Etp = (/+)( Rn + G) + (/+) (15.36)
* (w1+w2u2)(es ea)
where:
Etp = reference crop potential evapotranspiration, well-
watered alfalfa in cal/cm2 per day (langleys/day)
= slope of saturation vapor pressure-temperature curve
(de/dT) in mbar/C
= psychometric constant
Rn = net radiation in cal/cm2 per day
G = soil heat flux in cal/cm2 per day
u2 = wind movement in km/day at 2 m
es = saturation vapor pressure, mean of values obtained at
daily maximum and daily minimum temperatures in mbar
ea = mean actual vapor pressure in mbar
w1, w2 = wind term coefficients
2. Blaney Criddle Method

U = 25.4 KF = 25.4 K tp/100


where:
U = consumptive use of crop in mm for a given time period
K = empirical crop consumptive use coefficient (annual,
irrigation season, or growing season)
F = sum of the consumptive use factors for the period (sum
of the products of mean temperature and percent of annual
day-time hours ) (t x p)/100
t = mean temperature in F
p = percentage of day-time hours of the year, occurring
during the period
3. Hargreaves Equation

Etg = 0.0135(T + 17.178)Rs


where:
Etg = reference crop potential consumptive use, well
watered grass in langleys/day
T = average daily temperature in C
Rs = incident solar radiation in langleys/day
4. Jensen-Haise method

Etp = Ct (T Tx) Rs
where: Ct = a temperature coefficient = 0.025
T = temperature in C
Tx = the intercept on the temperature axis = -3
Rs = incident solar radiation in langleys/day
INFILTRATION is the flow of water into
the ground through the earths
surface.
SEEPAGE (S) is a lateral subsurface
movement of water within the soil
profile.
PERCOLATION (P) is a vertical
subsurface movement of water.
Water surface

ge
a
Soil

ep
Se
surface

Deep percolation
Factors Affecting Seepage
and Percolation

Soil Type

Fine Textured Soil Coarse Textured Soil


Deep Standing Water Shallow Standing Water

Percolation is high Percolation is low Percolation is zero

Percolation loss in deep flooded land is


greater than in shallow flooded land.
Sloping Land

Flat Land

Surface losses are greater in sloping


land than in flat land
Percolation HARD PAN Percolation

Percolation loss as affected by the


depth of hard pan
SURFACE WATER
Surface water hydrology deals with the
transfer of water along the earths
surface.
Once precipitation reaches the surface,
water can infiltrate into the soil or move
across the surface as runoff.
Surface runoff generally occurs when the
rainfall intensity exceeds the rate of
infiltration, or if the soil is at its water
holding capacity.
Runoff Paths
Three (3) runoff paths that water
follows to reach a stream channel:
Throughflow

Overland flow

Groundwater flow
Oceans
Rivers
GROUNDWATER

Groundwater is stored in subsurface


void spaces below the water table.

Aquifer is the geologic material that


stores, transports, and yields
groundwater to wells.
Three Types of Aquifers
Unconfined Aquifer
Confined Aquifer
Perched Aquifer
Unconfined Aquifer
no confining layers between the zone of
saturation and the land surface. If a fully
screened well is drilled into an unconfined
aquifer, the water level will rise to the water
table, which is the top of the zone of
saturation.
Confined Aquifer
is overlain by a confining layer or aquitard,
which is geologic material with little or no
permeability/hydraulic conductivity. This
layer does not allow water to pass through or
the rate of movement is extremely slow.
Perched Aquifer
is a saturated zone within the zone of
aeration that overlies a confining layer. A
perched aquifer sits above the main water
table.
WEATHER ELEMENTS AND
CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION

Climate refers to long-term trends in


weather over a long period of time.
Weather is the condition of the
atmosphere at a particular place and time.
Important Weather Elements:

Rainfall
Relative Humidity
Sunshine
Air Temperature
Air Pressure
Wind velocity
Cloud cover
Rainfall

Rainfall controls our water supplies.


That water supply is the basis of crop
production. Rainfall is especially
important in rainfed or dry land
agriculture. By knowing the nature
and characteristics of rainfall, we can
conceptualize and predict its effect on
the crop production and environment.
Rainfall intensity refers to the amount
of rain received during unit time.
High intensity rains are usually received during
short durations.
Low intensity rains can be of long duration.
We can expect a less intense rainfall (amount
also) over a large area than over a small area.
High intensity storms have a larger drop size than
low intensity storms.
Rains with large drop sizes will have high soil
erosion potential.
Rainfall duration within a given day/week/month/
crop season is highly variable.
Humidity
refers to the amount of moisture
(water vapor) in the surrounding air.

Relative Humidity is a measure of the


amount of moisture in the air compared
with the amount of moisture the air can
hold.
Measurement of Relative Humidity
1.Wet- and dry- bulb psychrometer
It consists of two identical mercury or
electrical thermometers, one of which has a
wet cotton or linen wick around its bulb.
Evaporating water from the wick absorbs
heat from the thermometer bulb, causing
the thermometer reading to drop.
The difference between dry-bulb and wet-
bulb temperatures is compared on
psychrometric charts.
Measurement of Relative Humidity
1.Wet- and dry- bulb psychrometer

Wet- and dry bulb


psychrometer
Psychrometric chart
2. Hair hygrometer
An instrument that measures the water vapor
content of the atmosphere.
Humidity stretches the hair (human / animal /
synthetic) while dryness shortens it.
Sunshine
Day length refers to the number of hours between
sun rise and sun set.
Sunshine duration is a measure of the
percentage of bright sunshine observed.

Campbell-Stokes
sunshine recorder
Air Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the level of
sensible heat (temperature measured by a
thermometer) of matter, whether it is gaseous
(air), liquid (water), or solid (rock or dry soil).
Air temperature is the intensity aspect of
sun's energy that strikes the earth's surface.

Thermometers
Air Pressure
Air pressure or Atmospheric pressure is the
weight of tiny particles of air (air molecules).

Aneroid barometer
Wind
Winds begin with differences in
air pressures.
Pressure that is higher at one
place than another sets up a
force pushing from the high
toward the low pressure.
The greater the difference in
pressures, the stronger will be Anemometer
the wind force.
Wind velocity includes both
wind speed and wind direction.
Clouds
Clouds are suspended water in the
atmosphere.
How clouds are formed?
When air rises, it expands and gets colder.
The colder air cannot hold as much water as
warmer air.
As the temperature and air pressure continue
to drop, tiny water droplets group together into
clumps called cloud droplets.
At this point, the parcel of air becomes as
visible cloud.
Types of Clouds
1. Cirrus this form embraces very high, thin,
separated, or detached clouds that develop
delicate patches or long extended fibers,
frequently with a feathery appearance and
always white in color.
Types of Clouds
2. Cumulus this form always exhibits flat-
based individual cloud masses, with a
pronounced vertical doming, and frequently
a cauliflower-like structure.
Types of Clouds
3. Stratus this implies an extended sheet or
layerlike cloud covering all or large portions
of the sky. It is usually a continuous cloud
deck and may show minor rifts, but no
definite individual cloud units.
Types of Clouds

4. Nimbus (Latin word for rain) any cloud


associated with precipitation.
The Water Balance

The water balance is an accounting of


the inputs and outputs of water.
The major input of water is from
precipitation and output is
evapotranspiration.
The Water Balance Components
Water balance equation

I + Rn = ET + P + S + SD + CWS
ET = Evapotranspiration (outflow; beneficial use)
P = Deep percolation (outflow, unproductive water loss)
S = Net seepage (outflow; unproductive water loss)
SD = Surface drainage (outflow; unproductive water loss)
CWS = Change in water status (residual water in the rice
field)
I = Irrigation supply (inflow)
Rn = Rainfall (inflow)

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