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SECTION 1 - 3
CONTENT OF COURSE
1. Introduction
2. Geologic Framework
3. Rock and Reservoir Properties
4. Fluid Properties
5. Well Logging and Data Acquisition
6. Well Pressure Testing
7. Reservoir Types and Classifications
8. Reserve Estimation Methods
9. Improved Recovery Methods
Introduction
1.
6.
Acquisition
Well Pressure Testing
Process
7. Reservoir Types and Reservoir Management
Classifications
8. Reserve Estimation Methods Economics
9. Improved Recovery Methods
CONTENT OF COURSE
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING AND ITS
APPLICATION
Definition:
thebranch of engineering that involves the
development and exploitation of crude oil and
natural gas fields as well as the technical analysis
and forecasting of their future performance.
Encyclopedia Britannica
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING AND ITS
APPLICATION
Main concern of petroleum engineers:
Precise knowledge of the behavior of crude oil,
natural gas, and water, singly or in combination,
under static conditions or in motion in the reservoir
rock and in pipes and under changing temperature
and pressure Craft & Hawkins
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING AND ITS
APPLICATION
Oil Consumption per capita (13 Jan 07):
from 2007 Energy Information Administration data, average April 2006 to March 2007 refinery
products:http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pnp_pct_dc_nus_pct_m.htm
Kerosene Asphalt
RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT PROCESS
Figure A-1: Reservoir Life Process (Copyright 1992, SPE, from paper 22350)
RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT PROCESS
Traditional framework of oil and gas data sources, technical, economic and risk interpretation models and decision-making
tools. (Images courtesy of the University of Wyoming)
RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT PROCESS
Production and reservoir dynamic real-time optimization model methodologies. From: http://www.epmag.com/EP-
Magazine/archive/Optimize-reservoir-management-real-time_246
RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS
RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT ECONOMICS
Introduction
1.
CONTENT OF COURSE
RESERVOIR ROCKS
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of
material
Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
The Rock Cycle
Magma
n
a
Weathering,
Transportation
Sedimentary and Deposition
Rock Sediment
i
SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES
Limestone and
dolomite
~13%
Siltstone, mud
and shale
~75%
Minerals - Definition
Naturally Occurring
Solid
Generally Formed by
Inorganic Processes
Ordered Internal
Arrangement of Atoms
(Crystal Structure)
Chemical Composition
and Physical Properties
Fixed or Vary Within
Quartz Crystals A Definite Range
AVERAGE DETRITAL MINERAL
COMPOSITION OF SHALE AND
SANDSTONE
Mineral Composition Shale (%) Sandstone (%)
Clay Minerals 60 5
Quartz 30 65
Feldspar 4 10-15
Carbonate 3 <1
Silicates
Non-Ferromagnesian Ferromagnesian
(Common in Sedimentary Rocks) (not common in sedimentary rocks)
Quartz Olivine
Muscovite (mica) Pyroxene
Feldspars Augite
Potassium feldspar (K-spar) Amphibole
Orthoclase Hornblende
Microcline, etc. Biotite (mica)
Plagioclase
Albite (Na-rich - common) through Red = Sedimentary Rock-
Anorthite (Ca-rich - not common) Forming Minerals
THE FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS
Framework
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
Matrix
Clay Size Detrital Material
Cement
Material precipitated post-depositionally, during burial.
Cements fill pores and replace framework grains
Pores
Voids between above components
SANDSTONE COMPOSITION FRAMEWORK
GRAINS
KF = Potassium
Feldspar
Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Contain
Hydrocarbon Fluids
Negligible
Porosity
Illite Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation
Migration of
Fines Problem
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces
Migration of Fines
Problem
Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
EFFECTS OF CLAYS ON RESERVOIR
QUALITY
100
10
10
1
1
0.1
0.1
0.01 0.01
2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18
Porosity (%)
(modified from Kugler and McHugh, 1990)
INFLUENCE OF CLAY-MINERAL DISTRIBUTION ON
EFFECTIVE POROSITY
fe Clay
Minerals
Dispersed Clay
Detrital Quartz
Grains
fe
Clay Lamination
Structural Clay fe
(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay-Replaced Grains)
DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is the Post-
Depositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Carbonate Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Cemented
Some Diagenetic Effects Include
Oil Compaction
Stained Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
The Effects of Diagenesis May
Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela
FLUIDS AFFECTING DIAGENESIS
Precipitation
Evaporation Evapotranspiration
Water Table
Infiltration
Meteoric
Water COMPACTIONAL
WATER Meteoric
Water
Petroleum
Fluids Zone of abnormal pressure
Isotherms
CH 4,CO 2,H2 S
Dissolution of
Partially
Framework Grains
Dissolved
(Feldspar, for
Feldspar
Example) and
Cement may
Enhance the
Pore Interconnected
Pore System
Quartz Detrital
Grain This is Called
Secondary Porosity
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light
Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
Vitrinite
A nonfluorescent type of organic material
in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material.
Reflected-Light Micrograph
of Coal
INTERPRETATION OF TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC)
(BASED ON EARLY OIL WINDOW MATURITY)
Hydrocarbon
TOC in Shale TOC in Carbonates
Generation
(wt. %) (wt. %)
Potential
Poor 0.0-0.5 0.0-0.2
Organic Debris
Diagenesis
Oil Reservoir
Cracking
Methane
Metagenesis
Carbon
(modified from Foster and Beaumont, 1991, after Dow and OConner, 1982)
GENERATION, MIGRATION, AND TRAPPING OF
HYDROCARBONS
Fault
Oil/water
(impermeable)
contact (OWC)
Migration route
Seal
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
accumulation rock
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity
Source rock
Cross Section Of A Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O
O O
Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
System Essential
Sedimentary
Seal Rock
Basin Fill
Elements
of Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Pod of Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (O)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window
Structural traps
Stratigraphic traps
Combination traps
Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
Gas
Shale Oil Oil/Gas Closure
Trap
Contact
Oil/Water
Contact
Oil
Fracture Basement
Fold Trap
Salt Salt
Diapir Oil
Dome
Gas
Oil
Sandstone
Shale
Fault Trap
Oil / Gas
Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
Unconformity Pinch out
Uncomformity Oil/Gas
Oil/Gas
Oil/Gas
Biodegraded
Oil/Asphalt
Partly
Water Biodegraded Oil
Hydrodynamic Trap
Hydrostatic
Head
Shale
Water
Oil
(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)
HETEROGENEITY
Reservoir Heterogeneity in Sandstone
Heterogeneity
Segments Reservoirs
Increases Tortuosity of
Fluid Flow
Heterogeneity May
Result From:
Depositional Features
Diagenetic Features
Fractures
Bounding
Surface
Bounding
Surface
Field Wide
From Well Logs,
Seismic Lines, 100's
Statistical m
Modeling,
etc.
1-10 km
Interwell
Reservoir 10's
Sandstone m
100's m
1-10's
Well-Bore
10-100's
m
10-100's mm
mm
Unaided Eye
Hand Lens or
Petrographic or Binocular Microscope
Scanning Electron
Microscope (modified from Weber, 1986)
Scales of Investigation Used in
Reservoir Characterization
300 m Relative Volume
14
Gigascopic 50 m Well Test 10
300 m
Reservoir Model 12
Megascopic Grid Cell 2 x 10
5m 150 m
2m
Wireline Log 7
1m
Interval 3 x 10
Macroscopic cm 2
Core Plug 5 x 10
mm - mm Geological
Microscopic 1
(modified from Hurst, 1993)
Thin Section
Stages In The Generation of
An Integrated Geological Reservoir Model
Geologic Activities
Regional Geologic
Framework
Depositional
Model (As Needed)
Integrated Fluid
Log Analysis Model
Well Test Analysis Geologic Model
(As Needed)
Applications Studies
Reserves Estimation
Simulation
Model Testing
And Revision
Introduction
1.
CONTENT OF COURSE
POROSITY
Definition:
a measure of the void (i.e., "empty") spaces in a
material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids
over the total volume, between 01, or as a
percentage between 0100%. (Symbol: )
Vp
x100%
Vb
POROSITY
Thin section under gypsum plate of microscopic carbonate grains (skeletal grains and intraclasts), from lithified Pleistoceneeolianites of Man Head
Cay, San Salvador Island, Bahamas. Porosity shown as purple color. Scale bar 500 micrometres.From:Petrographic Analysis and Depositional History of
an Open, Carbonate Lagoon: Rice Bay, San Salvador, Bahamas, 2000, James L. Stuby, masters thesis, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio. Figure A3-
20 from Appendix 3: Photomicrographs of Carbonate Grains in Rice Bay
POROSITY
Type of Porosity:
Primary Porosity: The main or original porosity
system in a rock or unconfined alluvial deposit.
Secondary Porosity: A subsequent or separate
porosity system in a rock, often enhancing
overall porosity of a rock. This can be a result of
chemical leeching of minerals or the generation
of a fracture system.
POROSITY
Type of Saturation:
Swi (initial water saturation)
Swc (connate water saturation)
Definition:
Permeability (K) is a measure of the ability of a
porous material (often, a rock or unconsolidated
material) to allow fluids to pass through it.
SI unit for permeability is m2.
A practical unit for permeability is darcy (D).
Type of permeability:
Absolute permeability (k)
Effective permeability (keff i.e., ko, kg, kw)
0.40
0.30
kr - relative permeability
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.20 0.31 0.42 0.53 0.64 0.75
Sw
krw vs Sw
krow vs Sw
PERMEABILITY
Corey Model
An often used approximation of relative
permeability is the Corey correlation which is power
law in the water saturation
k rw S
* 4
w
k ro 1 S 1 2 S
* 3
w
*
w
S w S wi
S
*
1 S wi
w
WETTABILITY
Definition:
The preference of a solid to contact one liquid or
gas, known as the wetting phase, rather than
another Oilfield Glossary Schlumberger
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Definition:
Capillary pressure is the difference in pressure across the
interface between two immiscible fluids
pc pnon wettingphase pwettingphase
Young-Laplace equation:
2 cos
pc
r
= Wetting angle, = interfacial tension, r = effective radius
of interface
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
J S w 0.21645
pc k
J(Sw) = Leverett J-function
f
Pc = capillary pressure (psi)
= interfacial tension (dynes/cm)
K = permeability (md)
= fractional porosity
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
res
pc res pc lab
lab
If we assume that the J-function will be
invariant for a given rock type:
Now a days the log may be taken as films, images, and in digital format.
HISTORY
1912 Conrad Schlumberger give the idea of using electrical measurements to map subsurface rock
bodies.
in 1919 Conrad Schlumberger and his brother Marcel begin work on well logs.
The first electrical resistivity well log was taken in France, in 1927.
The instrument which was use for this purpose is called SONDE, the sond was stopped at periodic
intervals in bore hole and the and resistivity was plotted on graph paper.
In 1929 the electrical resistivity logs are introduce on commercial scale in Venezuela, USA and Russia
For correlation and identification of Hydrocarbon bearing strata.
The photographic film recorder was developed in 1936 the curves were SN,LN AND LAT
The dip meter log were developed in 1930
The Gamma Ray and Neutron Log were begin in 1941
LOGGING UNITS
logging cable
winch to raise and lower the cable in the well
self-contained 120-volt AC generator
set of surface control panels
set of downhole tools (sondes and cartridges)
digital recording system
WORK FLOW CHART
depth to lithological boundaries
lithology identification
minerals grade/quality
inter-borehole correlation
structure mapping
dip determination
rock strength
fracture frequency
porosity
fluid salinity
DEPTH OF INVESTIGATION OF LOGGING TOOLS
LOG INTERPRETATION OBJECTIVES
The objective of log interpretation depends very much on the user. Quantitative analysis of well logs provides
the analyst with values for a variety of primary parameters, such as:
porosity
water saturation, fluid type (oil/gas/water)
lithology
permeability
From these, many corollary parameters can be derived by integration (and other means) to arrive at values for:
hydrocarbons-in-place
reserves (the recoverable fraction of hydrocarbons in-place)
mapping reservoir parameters
But not all users of wireline logs have quantitative analysis as their objective. Many of them are more
concerned with the geological and geophysical aspects. These users are interested in interpretation for:
well-to-well correlation
facies analysis
regional structural and sedimentary history
In quantitative log analysis, the objective is to define
the type of reservoir (lithology)
its storage capacity (porosity)
its hydrocarbon type and content (saturation)
its producibility (permeability)
GAMMA RAY LOG
Gamma Rays are high-energy electromagnetic waves which are emitted by atomic nuclei as a form
of radiation
Gamma ray log is measurement of natural radioactivity in formation verses depth.
It measures the radiation emitting from naturally occurring U, Th, and K.
It is also known as shale log.
GR log reflects shale or clay content.
Clean formations have low radioactivity level.
Correlation between wells,
Determination of bed boundaries,
Evaluation of shale content within a formation,
Mineral analysis,
Depth control for log tie-ins, side-wall coring, or perforating.
Particularly useful for defining shale beds when the sp is featureless
GR log can be run in both open and cased hole
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG (SP)
The most frequently used scales are a range of 2.0 to 3.0 gm/cc or 1.95
to 2.95 gm/cc across two tracks.
ACOUSTIC LOG