Lecture – 1

Advanced Computer Networks

(MCA-206)

by
Ruby Dahiya (Faculty – IT, IITM)
 Task Menu for Today

• Course Structure, Outline and Purpose

• Communication: what and how?
• Internet History
• Internet Design and Architecture

2
 Objective of Course
• To grasp the current directions of computer
networks research.
• To fill in gaps in students’ networking
knowledge.
• To better understand experimental
methodology.
Prerequisite: Knowledge of Data Communication
and Networking

3
 Communication: what and how?
• Communication: The exchange of thoughts, messages,
or information, as by speech, signals, writing or
behavior.
• Requirements for communication:
- medium+energy, protocol
• Design goals and criteria:
 Availability of communication system
 Reliability
 Scalability
 Security
 Efficiency (time ,cost etc.)

4
 Communication Networks
• Before electronic age
a. doves/pigeons
b. postal system
• Telegraphy
• Telephone networks
• Internet
• Cellular/wireless networks

5
 History of the Internet
• 1961-62 : Packet-switching theory.
• 1969 : Four host computers on ARPANET.
• 1972 : Email application launched.
Network Control Protocol (NCP) used in
ARPANET.
• 1980's : LANs, PCs and Work stations
• Until 1985: Internet used by researchers /
developers.
6
 History (continued)
• Networks from DoE, NASA,NSF and AT&T.
• NSFNET backbone was created.
• Privatization: 1985-1995
- six nodes (56 kbps links) to 21 nodes ( multiple
45 Mbps links
• Steady exponential growth in bandwidth, no. of
hosts, total traffic etc..

7
 Internet Design Goals

• Primary goal: Inter-networking

• Sources of variabilities: addressing, MTU ( max.
transfer unit ), delivery guarantees, delay /
bandwidth, routing.

8
 Other Design Goals
• Communication in the presence of failure.
• Multiple types of Service
• Accommodation of different networks.
• Distributed Management
• Cost Effectiveness.
• Dynamic host attachment & removal.
• Resource Accounting

9
 Internet Service Semantics
• Best effort
• Packets may be:
o dropped
o delayed
o duplicated
o Reordered
• Packets will NOT be created.

10
 Lecture – 2
Advanced Computer Networks
(MCA-206)

by
Ruby Dahiya (Faculty – IT, IITM)
 Task Menu for Today

• Layered Architecture
• Seven – Layer Architecture

12
 What is Layering?
• “Structuring technique which permits the
network …. to be viewed as logically composed
of a succession of layers, each wrapping the
lower layers and isolating them from the
upper layers.” [Zim80]
• Abstraction naturally lead to layering,
especially in network systems.

13
 Advantages of Layering
1. Handles heterogeneity
2. Software reuse
3. Modularity (i.e. Multiplicity of layers and
independence among themselves)
4. Extensibility
5. New Technologies are allowed

14
 What Functions in What Layers?
• The End To End Design Principle is a guide to
determine what functionality should go in what
layer/module in the system.
• Can be applied to :
o Networking systems
o Operating systems kernel modules
o Processor architectures
o Security systems
o Other general Systems too..

15
 End-to-End Principle
• Implement a function in a layer only if it can
be fully and correctly implemented at that
layer.
• The function can be partially implemented as
a performance enhancement.

16
 Some Terminology

• Upper layer/ Higher layer, Lower layer

• Service, Function/Functionality: A desirable
property, implemented by a lower layer and
used by upper layer.
- Examples: Reliable packet delivery , secure
delivery.

17
 Illustrating e2e Principle
• File Transfer Application
o Read from file system
o Transfer through communication network
o Write to file system
• Sources of errors
o Hardware faults while reading file
o Communication system may be unreliable.
• Correctness of the file system can be checked /
guaranteed only by the application.
18
 When to Partially Implement a
Function at a Lower Layer?
• When it is
1. Possible to implement without much trouble.
2. Performance improves by doing so.
3. Many higher level implementations
(applications) find use for it.
• Caveats in lower layer implementation
1. All applications have to use it, even if not
required.
2. Lower layer may not have enough information
for efficient implementation

19
 ISO:OSI Model
• ISO (International Standards Organization) is the organization.
• OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is the model.

20
 Lecture – 3
Advanced Computer Networks
(MCA-206)

by
Ruby Dahiya (Faculty – IT, IITM)
 Task Menu for Today
• The TCP/IP Reference Model
o Introduction to TCP/IP
o Overview of TCP/IP Architecture
o Similarities between OSI and TCP/IP Models
o Differences between OSI and TCP/IP Models
o Demerits of TCP/IP Model

22
 Introduction to TCP/IP
• TCP/IP are two protocols:
Transmission Control protocol and Internet protocol.
• Both protocols describe the movement of data
between the host computers or Internet.
• TCP/IP offers a simple naming and addressing scheme.
• Information on internet is carried in packets.
• Each packet has the address of the sender and of the
recipient known as IP address.
• Each packet in a single message can take its own route.

23
 TCP/IP Architecture
• TCP/IP model has four layers: Host- to - Network layer,
Internet layer, Transport layer and Application layer.
• Host-to-Network layer is responsible to connect host to the
network using some protocol.
• Internet layer defines (specifies) a packet format and a
protocol called internet protocol (IP).
Routing of packets and congestion control are key issues.
• Transport layer allows the per entities of the source and
destination machines to converse with each other.
The end to end protocols used here are TCP and UDP.
• In Application layer, all high-level protocols such as virtual
terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP) and e-mail (SMTP) are
implemented.
24
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Host-to-network : Physical and data link layer
– No specific protocol
• Network layer
– IP (Internet Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol),
RARP (Reverse ARP), ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol), IGMP (Internet Group Message Protocol)
• Transport layer
– TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram
Protocol), SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol),
• Application Layer
– Combined session, presentation, and application layers

25
TCP/IP and OSI Model

26
 Similarities between OSI and TCP/IP

• Concept of layered architecture.

• Layers roughly have the same functionality.
• Transport services independent of networks .
• Layers above transport layer are application –
oriented.

27
 Differences between OSI and TCP/IP
• Has seven layers.
• Separate session layer.
• Separate presentation layer.
• Network layer provides both
connectionless and
connection oriented services.
• Defines service, interfaces and
protocols and makes clear
distinction between them.
• Protocols are hidden and can
be easily replaced.
• OSI is truly a general model.
• Has four layers.
• No session layer.
• No presentation layer.
• Network layer provides
connectionless services.
• Doesn’t distinguish
between service,
interfaces and protocols.
• Not easy to replace the
protocols.
• TCP/IP cannot be used for
any other application.
28
 Demerits of TCP/IP Model
• Doesn’t clearly distinguish the concepts of
service, interfaces and protocols.
• Not at all general.
• The host-to-network layer is not a layer at all
in the normal sense.
• A proper model should include both physical
and data layers separately.

29
 Lecture – 5
Advanced Computer Networks
(MCA-206)

by
Ruby Dahiya (Faculty – IT, IITM)
 Task Menu for Today

• Distinguish between switched versus shared

LAN
• Explain the key features of Fast Ethernet
• Explain the key features of the Gigabit
Ethernet

31
 Introduction
• High speed LANs have emerged broadly into
three types
- successors of Ethernet (Fast Ethernet and
Gigabit Ethernet)
- based on token passing (FDDI)
- based on switching technology (ATM, fiber
channel and the Ether switches)

32
 Successors of Ethernet
• In Standard Ethernet, all stations share the
available bandwidth of 10 Mb/s.
• With the increase in traffic, the number of packet
collisions goes up, lowering the overall
throughput.
• Two basic approaches to increase the bandwidth:
- to replace the Ethernet with a higher speed
version of Ethernet (need to replace the NICs )
- to use Ethernet switches known as Switched
Ethernet. (use a high-speed internal bus to switch
packets between multiple (8 to 32) cable
segments )
33
 Switched Ethernet
• It gives dedicated 10 Mb/s bandwidth on each of
its ports.
• The collision domain is separated.
• The hub is replaced by a switch.
• The throughput can be further increased on
switched Ethernet by using full-duplex technique
• Two possible forwarding techniques:
- Store-and-forward (provides a greater level of
error detection but introduces longer delay of
about 1.2 msec )
- Cut-through (reduced latency but has higher
switch cost
34
 Fast Ethernet (IEEE 802.u)
• An addendum to the existing 802.3 standard.
• The fast Ethernet uses the same frame format, same
CSMA/CD protocol and same interface as the 802.3.
• It uses a data transfer rate of 100 Mb/s instead of 10
Mb/s.
• The data rate is increased by a factor of 10 and collision
domain is decreased by a factor of 10.
• With the speed of 100Mbps, the round-trip time
reduce to 5.76 microseconds. (576 bits/100 Mbps;
which was 57.6 microsecond for 10Mbps Normal
Ethernet)
• The collision domain is decreased 10 fold from 2500
meters (in IEEE802.3) to 250 meters (fast Ethernet).
35
 Categories of Fast Ethernet
• Two categories of Fast Ethernet:
- 100Base-T4 used for half-duplex communication
using four wire-pairs of the existing category 3 UTP
cables)
- 100Base-X uses two-wire interface between a hub
and a station
• 100-Base-X itself is divided into two:
- 100Base-TX uses two pairs of category 5 UTP or two
shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable to connect a
station.
- 100base-FX uses two Fiber optic cables (one carry
frames from station to hub and other from hub to
station )
36
 100Mbps Fast Ethernet

100BASE-TX 100BASE-FX 100BASE-T4

Transmission 2 pair, STP 2 pair, Catego ry 2 optical fibers 4 pair, Catego ry
medium 5 UTP 3, 4, or 5 UTP
Signaling MLT-3 MLT-3 4B5B, NRZI 8B6T, NRZ
techni que
Data ra te 100 Mbps 100 Mbps 100 Mbps 100 Mbps
Maximu m 100 m 100 m 100 m 100 m
segme nt length
Networ k span 200 m 200 m 400 m 200 m

37
 Gigabit Ethernet (IEEE 802.3z)
• Primary goal: To build a higher-speed protocol without
throwing away existing networking equipment.
• The Gigabit Ethernet Alliance was formed in May 1996
by 11 companies to provide open and inter-operable
Gigabit Ethernet products.
• The objectives of the alliance are:
- Supporting extension of existing Ethernet and Fast
Ethernet technology in response to demand for higher
network bandwidth.
- Developing technical proposals for the inclusion in the
standard
- Establishment of inter-operability test procedures and
processes
38
Similarities and Advances over Ethernet
• Gigabit Ethernet - officially known as 802.3z - is the 1
Gb/s extension of the 802.3 standard.
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) is the access method.
• It supports full duplex as well as half duplex modes of
operation.
• Single-mode and multi mode fiber, short-haul coaxial
cable and standards for twisted pair cables are
supported.
• It can be used to aggregate traffic between clients and
"server farms", and for connecting Fast Ethernet
switches.
• It can also be used for connecting workstations and
servers for high-bandwidth applications.
39
 Differences
(i) Cable requirement - The technology is based on fiber
optic cable.
(ii) Due to network instability, a mechanism known as
carrier extension has been proposed for frames shorter
than 512 bytes. The number of repeater hops is also
restricted to only one in place of two for 100 Base-T.
(iii) Flow Control: Buffer overflow and junked frames in
heavily loaded condition.(Solution: the 802.3x)
(iv) Quality of Service (QoS): It is a connectionless
technology that transmits variable length frames.
(802.lq tags traffic for VLANs and for prioritization
802.lp )

40
Gigabit Ethernet Protocol Architecture

41
 Architecture (contd..)
• PCS (Physical Coding Sub layer)
- provides a uniform interface to the reconciliation layer
for all physical media.
- uses 8B/10B coding .
- Carrier Sense and Collision Detect indications are
generated by this sub layer.
- Auto-negotiation
• PMA (Physical Medium Attachment)
- This sub layer provides a medium-independent means
for the PCS to support various serial bit-oriented
physical media.
• PMD (Physical Medium Dependent)
- maps the physical medium to the PCS .
- The MDI (Medium Dependent Interface), which is a part
of PMD, is the actual physical layer interface 42
 Architecture (contd..)
• GMII (Gigabit Media Independent Interface)
- An interface between the MAC layer and the
Physical layer.
- It supports 10, 100 and 1000 Mbps data rates.
- It provides separate 8-bit wide receive and
transmit data paths.(both full duplex as well as
half duplex)
- GMII provides 2 media status signals: one
indicates presence of the carrier, and the other
indicates absence of collision.
• Reconciliation Sub layer :maps status signals to
Physical Signaling (PLS) primitives understood by
the existing MAC sub layer
43
 Architecture (contd..)
• Gigabit Ethernet adheres to the standard Ethernet frame
format (no frame translation and same minimum and
maximum frame sizes ).
• The minimum frame size is not increased, but the "carrier
event" is extended.
• Extension is a way of maintaining 802.3 min. and max. frame
sizes with meaningful cabling distances.
• If the frame is shorter than 512 bytes, then it is padded with
extension symbols. This process is called Carrier Extension .
- Entire extended frame is considered for collision and dropped.
- The extension symbols are removed before the FCS is checked
by the receiver.
- LLC (Logical Link Control) layer is not even aware of the carrier
extension
- Wastes bandwidth (for small packets) 44
 Architecture (contd..)
• Packet Bursting: Packet Bursting is "Carrier Extension
plus a burst of packets" .
- First packet is padded to the slot time if necessary
using carrier extension.
- Subsequent packets are transmitted back to back, with
the minimum Inter-packet gap (IPG) until a burst timer
(of 1500 bytes) expires.
- Packet Bursting substantially increases the throughput.

GBIC: Gigabit Ethernet Interface Carrier allows network

managers to configure each port on a port-by-port
basis, including long-haul (LH) to support a distance of
5-10 Km using SMF .
45
Gigabit Ethernet Configuration

46
Gigabit Ethernet – Physical

47
 Lecture – 6
Advanced Computer Networks
(MCA-206)

by
Ruby Dahiya (Faculty – IT, IITM)
 Task Menu for Today

• Introduction to FDDI
• Core Concepts – medium, topology and
fault tolerance
• Various FDDI Protocols

49
Fiber Distributed Data Interface(FDDI)
• FDDI was developed by American National
Standard Institute (ANSI).
• A token passing ring network.
• Optical – fiber medium.
• Operates at 100 Mbps speed.
• Divides transmission functions into 4 protocols:
- Physical Medium Dependent (PMD)
- Physical (PHY)
- Medium Access Control (MAC)
- Logical Link Control (LLC)
50
 Medium
• Standard medium is Multi-mode 62.5/125 micron
optical fiber cable.
• LED( light emitting diode) transmitting at 1300
nanometers as light source.
• FDDI can support up to 500 stations.
- Maximum distance of 2 km between stations.
- Maximum ring circumference of 200 km.
• With single mode 8-10/125 micron, maximum
distance can exceed up to 20 km between
stations.
• FDDI uses 4B/5B code for block coding , normally
line coded with NRZ-I
51
Advantages of Optical Fiber over Copper
• Security
- Fiber does not emit electrical signals, hence cannot
be tapped.
• Reliability
- Fiber is immune to radio frequency interference
(RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI).
• Performance
- FDDI allows 2 km with multi-mode and more with
single mode between stations in comparison to
CDDI that is limited to 100 meters.
52
 Topology
• Basic topology: Dual Counter Rotating Rings,
one transmitting clockwise and the other
transmitting counter clockwise.
• One is known as primary ring and the other
secondary ring.
• Theoretically, both the rings can achieve a
data transfer rate of 200 Mb/s.
• As per standard recommendation, the primary
ring is used for data transmission and
secondary ring is used as a backup.
53
FDDI Dual Counter-Rotating
Ring Topology

54
 Fault Tolerance
• Redundancy in the ring design provides a
degree of fault tolerance.
• Improvement in reliability and availability can
be achieved by:
- dual ring of trees
- dual homing mechanism.
• FDDI a resilient media technology. (Because of
Dual-ring environment, the implementation of
the optical bypass switch, and dual-homing)
55
 Dual Ring
• If a station on the dual ring fails or is powered
down, or if the cable is damaged, the dual ring gets
automatically wrapped.
• Wrapping is the conversion of the dual-ring
topology into a single-ring topology.
• During the wrap condition, data continues to be
transmitted on the FDDI ring.
• Wrapping takes place in case of:
(a) Broken Link
(b) Defective Station

56
Dual Ring (contd…)

57
 Optical Bypass Switch
• An optical bypass switch provides continuous dual-ring
operation if a device on the dual ring fails.
• This prevents ring segmentation and elimination of
failed stations from the ring.
• Switch performs this function using optical mirrors.
• During normal operation, optical mirrors that pass light
from the ring directly to the DAS (dual-attachment
station) device .
• In case of failure, switch maintains ring’s integrity by
passing the light through itself, using internal mirrors.
• The benefit of this capability is that the ring will not
enter a wrapped condition in case of a device failure.
58
 Dual Homing
• A fault-tolerant technique used by critical
devices, such as routers or mainframe hosts.
• In dual-homing situations, the critical device is
attached to two concentrators.
• The dual homing provides additional
redundancy and to help guarantee operation.

59
 Frame Format
• Data/ Command Frame:

PA SD FC DA SA DATA FCS ED FS

• Token Frame

PA SD FC ED

60
 Fields Description of Frame Format
• PA(Preamble ): (16 idle symbols-1111), for a total of 64
bits, to initialize clock synchronization with the receiver
• SD (Start Delimiter): One byte long field that is the
frame’s starting flag.
• FC (Frame Control): identifies the frame type i.e. token
or a data frame.
• Address: the next 2 fields are destination and source
addresses. Each address consists of 2-6 bytes.
• Data: Each data frame carries up to 4500 bytes.
• FCS (Frame Check Sequence): 4-byte cyclic redundancy
check.
• ED (End Delimiter): this field consists of half a byte in
data frame or a full byte in token frame and represents
end of the Token.
• FS(Frame Status): It is included only in data/Command
frame and consists of one and a half bytes. 61
 Media Access Control (MAC)
• FDDI MAC protocol is responsible for the following
services:
(i) Fair and equal access to the ring by using a timed
token protocol implemented by three timers: Token
holding Timer (THT), Token Rotation Timer (TRT) and
The Valid Transmission Timer (VTT).
(ii) Construction of frames and tokens are done as per
the format.
(iii) Simultaneously, transmitting, receiving, repeating
and stripping several frames and tokens from the
ring.
(iv) Ring initialization, fault isolation and error detection
62
FDDI and OSI model

63
 FDDI Protocols
• Physical Layer Medium Dependent (PMD) standards, which
specify requirements such as media and connection types.
• Physical layer protocol (PHY) standard is a medium-
independent that defines symbols, line status,
encoding/decoding techniques, clocking requirements and
data framing requirements.
• FDDI Media Access Control (MAC) standard defines
addressing conventions, frame formats and the timed token
protocol.
• IEEE 802.2 LLC standard provides a means for exchanging
data between LLC users.
• The Station Management (SMT) standard provides services.
that monitor and control a FDDI station. Also, facilitates for
connection management, node configuration, recovery
from error condition, and encoding of SMT frames.

64
 Lecture – 7
Advanced Computer Networks
(MCA-206)

by
Ruby Dahiya (Faculty – IT, IITM)
 Task Menu for Today

• Introduction to Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

• Architecture of 802.11
• Access Method and Physical properties
• Introduction to WiMax(IEEE 802.16)

66
 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
• Wi-Fi is technically a trademark, owned by a
trade group called the Wi-Fi Alliance.
• This alliance certifies product compliance with
802.11.
• 802.11 is designed for use in a limited
geographical area (homes, office buildings and
campuses).
• Primary Challenge – to mediate access to a
shared communication medium (here, signals
propagating through space).

67
 IEEE 802.11 Architecture
• This defines two kind of services :
i) Basic Service Set (BSS) – made up of stationary /
mobile station and an option central base station
known as Access Point (AP).

68
 Basic Service Set (BSS)
• BSS
– The building block of a wireless LAN
• BSS with an AP
– Access Point (AP): central base station
• BSS without an AP
– Stand-alone network
– Cannot send data to other BSSs
– Ad hoc architecture
• BSS with an AP
– Called an infrastructure network

69
 IEEE 802.11 Architecture (contd..)
ii) Extended Service Set (ESS)

- made up of two or more BSS with APs and these BSS

are connected through a distribution system and
that can be any IEEE LAN.

- uses two types of stations : mobile and stationary.

Mobile stations are normal stations inside BSS and
stationary are AP stations that are part of wired
LAN.

70
ESS (Contd..)

71
 MAC Sub-layer

• Two MAC sublayers: DCF and PCF

• DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method
72
Why do CSMA/CD is not used?
1. Hidden Terminal Problem – Two stations
simultaneously sends a frame to a common
station . But due to some obstruction like wall,
hill, they couldn’t hear each other and think their
packets have arrived safely.
2. Exposed Station Problem – inverse of hidden
station problem i.e. here channel is free to use
but can’t be used as it overhear other two
stations.

73
CSMA/CA Flow Chart

74
Access Method: CSMA/CA (Use of Handshaking)

75
 CSMA/CA and NAV

• Network allocation vector (NAV) shows how much time

must pass before these stations are allowed to check the
channel for idleness
76
Point Coordination Function (PCF)
• An optional access method that can be
implemented in an AP
• A centralized, contention-free polling access
method
• To give priority to PCF over DCF, another set of
inter -frame spaces has been defined: PIFS and
SIFS
• PIFS (PCF IFS) is shorter than the DIFS  AP using
PCF has priority
• Repetition interval starts with a special control
frame, called a beacon frame

77
MAC Layer Frame Format

78
 Frame Format
• Frame Control (FC): defines type of frame and control
Information.
• D: defines the duration of transmission
• Addresses: the meaning of the field depends on the
value of the To DS and the From DS subfields( 2 flags
in FC field).
• Sequence Control (SC): defines the sequence no. of
the frame used for flow control.
• Frame body: varies from 0 to 2312 bytes.
• FCS: contains a CRC-32 error detection sequence.

79
 Frame Types
• Three categories of frames
• Management frames for initial communication between
stations and APs
• Control frames for accessing the channel and acknowledging
frames
• Data frame for carrying data and control information

80
Addressing Mechanism

81
 Physical Layer

• Industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band which

defines three unlicensed bands in three ranges 902-928
MHz, 2.400-4.835 GHz, and 5.725-5.850 GHz

82
 Physical Layer
• IEEE 802.11 FHSS

• IEEE 802.11 DSSS

83
 Physical Layer
• IEEE 802.11 Infrared

• IEEE 802.11a OFDM

– Common data rates are 18 Mbps (PSK) and 54 Mbps (QAM)
• IEEE 802.11b DSSS
– High-rate direct sequence spread spectrum (HR-DSSS)
– Similar to DSSS method except for the encoding method called
complementary code keying (CCK), Four data rates; 1, 2, .5, 11 Mbps

• IEEE 802.11g
– Forward error correction and OFDM using 2.4 GHz ISM, 22- or 54-Mbps
data rate
84
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• The signal is transmitted over a random sequence of
frequencies generated with the help of a pseudorandom number
generator.
• In this method ,sender hops from one carrier frequency to
another for the same amount of time and after N hops the cycle
is repeated.
• If the original BW is B, The allocated SS BW is N X B.
• The modulation technique used is FSK.

85
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
• It is a method for signal generation in 2.40 to 2.48 GHz band
with data rate of 1 or 2 Mbps.
• Each bit in the frame is replaced by multiple bits (called chip
code) in the transmitted frame.
• If N is the no. of bits in each chip code, then the data rate is N
times the data rate of the original bit stream.
• DSSS uses PSK as its modulation technique.

86
 WiMAX (IEEE 802.16)
• WiMAX is an IP based, wireless broadband access
technology.
• The acronym meaning is "Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access”.
• Can provide broadband wireless access (BWA) up
to 30 miles (50 km) for fixed stations, and 3 - 10
miles (5 - 15 km) for mobile stations.
• WiMAX is a standards initiative.
• Its purpose is to ensure that the broadband
wireless radios manufactured for customer use
interoperate from vendor to vendor.
87
 Objections to Wireless Networks
• WiMAX utilizes a number of measures to ensure good
QoS, including service flow QoS scheduling, dynamic
service establishment, and a two – phase activation
model.
• WiMAX uses a X.509 encryption to set up the session .
• Once session is established, uses 56-bit DES encryption
to protect the transmission.
• A WISP, public or private, is transmitting “for free.”
• The data flow can be beamed to homes and small
businesses in places where no fiber optic or other high
bandwidth service exists.

88
 WiMAX – The Physical Layer
• It ensures the most efficient delivery in terms
of bandwidth(volume and time in Mbps) and
frequency spectrum (MHz/GHz).
• Legacy technologies used are:
- OFDM
- TDD and FDD
- QAM
- Adaptive Antenna System (AAS)

89
 OFDM
• OFDM is what puts the max in WiMAX.
• Originally patented it in 1970 by Bell Labs.
• OFDM is based on a mathematical process called
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
• It enables 52 channels to overlap without losing
their individual characteristics (orthogonality).
• OFDM is especially popular in wireless
applications because of its resistance to forms of
interference and degradation (multipath and
delay spread)

90
 TDD and FDD
• WiMAX supports both time division duplex
(TDD) and frequency division duplex (FDD)
operation.
• TDD is a technique in which the system
transmits and receives within the same
frequency channel, assigning time slices for
transmit and receive modes.
• FDD requires two separate frequencies generally
separated by 50 to 100 MHz, within the
operating band.
91
 Adaptive Antenna System (AAS)
• AAS is used in the WiMAX specification to describe
beam-forming techniques.
• An array of antennas is used at the BS to increase
gain to the intended SS while nulling out
interference to and from other SSs and interference
sources.
• AAS techniques can be used to enable Spatial
Division Multiple Access (SDMA).
• Multiple SSs that are separated in space can receive
and transmit on the same sub-channel at the same
time.
92
 Modulation Techniques
• The standard supports multiple modulation
levels:
-Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
- Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
- Quadrature Amplitude Modulation ( 16-QAM,
and 64-QAM).

93
 WiMAX - MAC layer
• The WiMAX MAC protocol was designed for point-to-
multipoint broadband wireless access applications.
• It addresses the need for very high bit rates, both UL
(to the BS) and DL (from the BS).
• The WiMAX MAC accommodates both continuous and
bursty traffic.
• Convergence sublayers map the transport-layer-
specific traffic to a MAC that is flexible enough to
efficiently carry any traffic type.
• The convergence sublayers and MAC work together
using payload header suppression, packing, and
fragmentation to carry traffic more efficiently

94
 MAC and Wi-Fi Architecture
• The WiMAX wireless link operates with a central BS with a
sectorized antenna.
• Within a given frequency channel and antenna sector, all
stations receive the same transmission.
• The DL is generally broadcast (all SSs capable of listening).
• The MAC is connection-oriented.
• Connections are referenced with 16-bit connection
identifiers (CIDs) and may require continuously granted
bandwidth or bandwidth on demand.
• A CID is used to distinguish between multiple UL channels
that are associated with the same DL channel.
• The SSs check the CIDs in the received PDUs and retain
only those PDUs addressed to them.
• The MAC PDU is the data unit exchanged between the
MAC layers of the BS and its SSs.
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Types of Management Connections
• Basic connection — transfers short, time-critical MAC and
radio link control (RLC) messages .
• Primary management connection—transfers longer, more
delay-tolerant messages such as those used for
authentication and connection setup.
• The secondary management connection transfers
standards-based management messages such as DHCP,
TFTP and SNMP.
• In addition to these management connections, SSs are
allocated transport connections for the contracted services.
• Transport connections — are unidirectional to facilitate
different UL and DL QoS and traffic parameters; they are
typically assigned to services in pairs.

96
 806.16 Frame Format
• Data Frame description:
- First bit decides frame type (0 for data and 1 for
control)
- EO (1-bit) : Encryption Payload
- Type (6-bit) : type of frame connection ID
- CI (1-bit) : Checksum Indication
- EK (2-bit): Which of the 4 encryption keys used
- Length (11-bit): Including header
- CID (16-bit): Connection ID
- Header CRC (8-bit) : x8 + x2 + x +1
- Data
- CRC (4-bit)

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 806.16 Frame Format (contd…)
• Control Frame is used to request time slots for
different services.
• It identifies the terminal through connection .
• The Type (6-bit) identifies type of frame
control.
• Bytes Needed (16-bit) identifies how much
data (in terms of number of bytes), terminal
wants to transmit.

98
 Other Wireless MAN Solutions
• Multichannel Multipoint Distribution System
(MMDS)
- Works at 2.4 GHz or 5GHz
- Range up to 50km
- Data rate supported is 128 kbps
• Local Multipoint Distribution System (LMDS)
• Both suffered due to lack of standardization
and hence restricted use.
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 Lecture – 9
Advanced Computer Networks
(MCA-206)

by
Ruby Dahiya (Faculty – IT, IITM)
 Task Menu for Today
• Introduction to Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber Line (ADSL)
• ADSL Design
• Underlying Technology - Discrete Multitone
Technique (DMT)
• Variants of ADSL (xDSL)
• Cable Modem

101
 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
• DSL: The link between subscriber and network.
• Network designers exploited the installed base of
twisted – pair wire.
• It links virtually all residential and business
customers to telephone networks.
• These links were installed to carry voice-grade
signals (0-4KHz Bandwidth).
• However, DSL is capable to provide higher speed
access to the internet. (capable of transmitting
signals over a broad spectrum of 1 MHz or more)

102
 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
(ADSL)
• ADSL : A family of new modem technologies to
provide high-speed digital data transmission over
ordinary telephone wire.
• “Asymmetric” refers that the ADSL provides more
capacity downstream than upstream.
• ADSL is a perfect fit for the Internet requirement.
• ADSL uses Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
to exploit the 1 MHz capacity of twisted pair.

103
 Elements of ADSL
• Reserve lowest 25 KHz for voice, known POTS.
- Voice is carried only in the 0 to 4 KHz band.
- Additional bandwidth is to prevent crosstalk
between the voice and data channels.
• Use either FDM or echo cancellation to allocate
two bands, a smaller upstream band and a larger
downstream band.
• Use FDM within the upstream and downstream
bands. (Single bit stream is split into multiple
parallel bit streams and each portion is carried in
a separate frequency band)

104
ADSL Channel Configuration

105
 Echo Cancellation
• A signal processing technique that allows transmission of
digital signals in both directions on a single transmission
line simultaneously.
• In essence, transmitter must subtract the echo of its own
transmission from the incoming signal sent by the other
side.
• In this, the entire frequency band for the upstream
overlaps the lower portion of the downstream channel.
• Advantages :
- More of the downstream bandwidth is in the “good” part
of the spectrum.
- Flexible for changing upstream capacity.
• Disadvantage:
- Need for echo cancellation logic on both ends of the line.
106
 ADSL Design
• ADSL is an adaptive technology. The system uses a
data rate based on the condition of the local loop
line.
• Uses frequency spectrum of 1.1MHz. Divides it into
256 channels each of size roughly 4.312KHz.
• Channel 0 : POTS
• Channel 1-5: guard band between voice and data
• Two for control channels, one for downstream and
other for upstream.
• Remaining are partitioned between upstream and
downstream: depends on service provider; usually it
is asymmetric.
107
 Discrete Multitone (DMT)
• multiple carrier signals at different frequencies
• divide into 4kHz sub channels
• test and use sub channels with better SNR
• 256 downstream sub channels at 4kHz (60kbps)
– in theory 15.36Mbps, in practice 1.5-9Mbps
 xDSL
• High data rate DSL (HDSL)
– 2B1Q coding on dual twisted pairs
– up to 2Mbps over 3.7km
• Single line DSL
– 2B1Q coding on single twisted pair (residential)
with echo cancelling
– up to 2Mbps over 3.7km
• Very high data rate DSL
– DMT/QAM for very high data rates
– over separate bands for separate services
(For summary of DSL Technologies: Refer table 9.1 of DCN by Forouzan)

109
 Cable Modems
• dedicate two cable TV channels to data transfer
• each channel shared by number of subscribers, using
statistical TDM
• Downstream
– cable scheduler delivers data in small packets
– active subscribers share downstream capacity
– also allocates upstream time slots to subscribers
• Upstream
– user requests timeslots on shared upstream
channel
– Head end scheduler notifies subscriber of slots to
use
110
Cable Modem Scheme

111
 Lecture – 10
Advanced Computer Networks
(MCA-206)

by
Ruby Dahiya (Faculty – IT, IITM)
 Task Menu for Today
• Introduction to Fibre Channel
• Fibre Channel Requirements
• Physical media and topologies
• Advantages and Applications of Fibre
Channel.
• Fibre Channel Prospects

113
 Fibre Channel - Background
• I/O channel
– direct point to point or multipoint comms link
– hardware based, high speed, very short distances
• Network connection
– based on interconnected access points
– software based protocol with flow control, error
detection & recovery
– for end systems connections

114
 Fibre Channel
• Combines best of both technologies
• Channel oriented
– data type qualifiers for routing frame payload
– link level constructs associated with I/O ops
– protocol interface specifications to support existing I/O
architectures
• Network oriented
– full multiplexing between multiple destinations
– peer to peer connectivity
– internetworking to other connection technologies

115
 Fibre Channel Requirements
• Full duplex links with two fibers per link
• 100 Mbps to 800 Mbps on single line
• Support distances up to 10 km
• Small connectors
• High-capacity utilization with distance insensitivity
• Greater connectivity than existing multidrop channels
• Broad availability
• Support for multiple cost/performance levels
• Ability to carry multiple existing interface command sets for
existing channel and network protocols

116
Fibre Channel Network

117
 Fibre Channel Protocol Architecture

• FC-0 Physical Media

• FC-1 Transmission Protocol
• FC-2 Framing Protocol
• FC-3 Common Services
• FC-4 Mapping

118
 Fibre Channel Physical Media
800 Mbps 400 Mbps 200 Mbps 100 Mbps
Single mode 10 km 10 km 10 km —
fiber
50-µm 0.5 km 1 km 2 km —
multimode fiber
62.5-µm 175 m 1 km 1 km —
multimode fiber
Video coaxial 50 m 71 m 100 m 100 m
cable
Miniature 14 m 19 m 28 m 42 m
coaxial cable
Shielded twisted 28 m 46 m 57 m 80 m
pair

119
 Fibre Channel Topologies
• Most general supported topology is fabric or
switched topology
– arbitrary topology with at least one switch to interconnect
number of end systems
– may also consist of switched network
• Routing is transparent to nodes
– when data transmitted into fabric, edge switch uses
destination port address to determine location
– either deliver frame to node attached to same switch or
transfers frame to adjacent switch

120
 Fabric Advantages
• Scalability of capacity
• Protocol independent
• Distance insensitive
• Switch and transmission link technologies may
change without affecting overall configuration
• Burden on nodes minimized

121
Fibre Channel Applications

122
 Fibre Channel Prospects
• Backed by Fibre Channel Association
• Various interface cards available
• Widely accepted as peripheral device interconnect
• Technically attractive to general high-speed LAN
requirements
• Must compete with Ethernet and ATM LANs
• Cost and performance issues will dominate
consideration of competing technologies

123