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SGDU5033

School Management & Supervision

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This lecture will introduces the key concepts in educational
management and administration.
You are also introduced to the differences between
management and administration as well as the process in
the management of educational institutions.
Several theoretical models of educational management are
defined. Key managerial skills and attributes, time
management and roles of administrators in educational
institutions are also discussed in this lecture.

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Introduction
This lecture introduces you to management approaches,
functions, concepts and principles of management in
education.
By the end of the course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of administration, and management
with confidence and professionalism.
2. Apply management approaches and functions of
management in educational settings.
3. Utilise the managerial skills and attributes in appropriate
workplace situations.

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4. Lead in the management of appropriate educational
settings.
5. Display professionalism and accountability in the
management of work-related situations.
6. Organise appropriately a variety of tasks which require
the integration of management skills.
7. Relate to educational institution reform and changes.
8. Create and justify teamwork in workplace situations.

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By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain management.
2. Differentiate the concepts of management.
3. Describe key elements in school administration.
4. Discuss various theoretical models of educational
management.
5. Identify roles of management in educational institutions.
6. Examine skills and attributes of manager.
7. Utilise suitable skills in simulated and work-related
situations.
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CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT

As a Theory As a Process
Philosophy Human Relations
Concept Material Management
Objectives Financial Management
Functions Planning
Principles & Practices Organizing
Models Implementing
Directing
Coordinating
Monitoring
Controlling
Decision-making
Evaluating
Why Study Management?
• The better you can work with people, the more successful you
will be in both your personal and your professional lives.
– Ministry/school want to hire head teachers who can
participate in managing the school.
• The study of school management builds the skills needed in
today’s workplace/school to succeed in:
– Becoming a partner in managing your organization through
participative management.
– Working in a team and sharing in decision making and other
management tasks.

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• The study of school management also applies
directly to your personal life in helping you to:
– Communicate with and interact with people every
day.
– Make personal plans and decisions, set goals,
prioritize what you will do, and get others to do
things for you.

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What is Management?
What in the world is everyone talking about when
they talk about management?
Primarily, they're talking about CONTROL.

School managers control things. People. Results.


The stuff we do every day to make sure nothing
goes wrong, to make sure that we're sailing
smoothly.
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A set of activities
planning and decision making, organizing, leading,
and controlling
directed at an organization’s resources
human, financial, physical, and information
with the aim of achieving organizational goals in an
efficient and effective manner.

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Definition of Management

• Management is a continuous process through which


members of an organisation seek to coordinate their
activities and utilise their resources in order to fulfil the
various tasks of the organisation as efficiently as possible
(Hoyle 1981, 8).
• Management also refers carrying out the executive
functions in line with the agreed predetermined policy
made by the relevant authority.

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It concerns the operations of the organisation especially
the management of educational resources and its
relationship with the environment.

Above all, management in principle concerns the purpose


or aims of education (Bush and Middlewood 2005:3).

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Management
• The PROCESS of working (i) WITH and THROUGH OTHERS
to (ii) ACHIEVE ORGANIZATIONAL OBJECTIVES in a (iii)
CHANGING ENVIRONMENT. (coping with changing
environment).
• Management entails the (iv) EFFECTIVE and EFFICIENT
USE OF LIMITED RESOURCES. Making most of limited
resources. Balancing effectiveness and efficiency.

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Key Aspects of the Management Process

Getting the most


Changing Environment out of limited
resources
(Outside influences)

Achieving
organizational
Working Balancing
objectives
with and effectiveness
through and efficiency
others
Working with and Through Others
• Management is a SOCIAL process in which school
managers get things done by working with and
through other (teachers). Collective purposes.
• Shortcomings of ‘derailed’ school managers
Problems with interpersonal relationship
Failure to meet objectives
Failure to build and lead a team
Inability to change and adapt during a transition

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Achieving Organizational Objectives

• An objective is a target to be strived for and attained.


Challenging yet achievable objectives provide guidance
for effective and efficient actions by individuals and
organizations.

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Basic Purpose of Management

EFFICIENTLY
Using resources wisely and
in a cost-effective way

And

EFFECTIVELY
Making the right decisions and
successfully implementing them

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Balancing Effectiveness & Efficiency
Effectiveness
The job gets
done, but…

Efficiency
Limited resources
are wasted

Too much emphasis on effectiveness

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Efficiency
Available resources
Balancing Effectiveness &
are underutilized
Efficiency

Effectiveness
The job gets
done,
because…

Too much emphasis on efficiency

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Balancing Effectiveness & Efficiency

Effectiveness
Efficiency
The job gets
Limited resources
done, and…
are not wasted

Balanced emphasis on effectiveness and efficiency

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MEANING OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
A social organization
 Specified objectives
 Own staff
 Resources – financial, material and physical
 The manager – head master

School management has two aspects:


 Internal management – admission, library, laboratory, building
etc
 External management – community, department, agencies and
other persons

Cooperative human endeavor


 Head master, teachers, parents, students and the community
members.
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT &
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
“Administration as decision-making function and management as
execution function. In this sense administration is above
management” – Oliver Sheldon (1923)

“Administration is a part of management.” – Brech (1972)

The most popular and practical view;

“Management and administration are same because both involve


the same functions, principles and objectives.”
Dash (2004) – difference between management and
administration:

Administration – more stress on strict conformity to


rules and regulations.

Management - democratization in policy formulation,


decision-making, implementing and bringing
improvements in the system. A manager is considered
as one among the staff-friend, philosopher and guide
for others.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
1. Multidisciplinary – various disciplines such as psychology,
sociology, economics.

2. An applied branch – applies the techniques and principles of


management to achieve the objectives.

3. Flexibility - should not be based on rigid principles.


4. Practicability – should not be a bundle of theoretical principles.
5. Humane – concerned with the welfare and development of
human beings
6. Conformity with the social and political philosophy of the
country

7. Objective-based
8. Both science and art - not only scientific principles but also
based on intuition, experience and common sense.

9. A semi-profession – not a profit industry


10. Relative, not absolute – the differences in situational
factors.
SCOPE OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
Includes the following elements:
1. Planning
2. Budgeting
3. Organizing
4. Directing
5. Controlling
6. Coordinating
7. Decision-making
8. Evaluating
9. Activities and Programme
Includes the following activities under its scope:
1. Planning of all activities and programme of the
school
2. Distribution of academic and co-curricular
activities
3. Preparation of budget
4. Preparation of timetable
5. Provision of staff
6. Provision of equipment and furniture
7. Provision of books for the school library
8. Organization of academic work
9. Organization of co-curricular activities
Managing for Effectiveness

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What is a Manager?
• Someone whose primary responsibility is to
carry out the management process.
• Someone who plans and makes decisions,
organizes, leads, and controls human, financial,
physical, and information resources.

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What Is a Manager’s Responsibility?

Management is the attainment of organizational goals in


an effective and efficient manner through planning,
organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling organizational
resources
• Manager
 The individual responsible for achieving organizational
objectives through efficient and effective utilization of
resources.

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The Manager’s Resources
 Human, financial, physical, and informational

Performance
 Means of evaluating how effectively and efficiently
managers use resources to achieve objectives.

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What Do Manager Do?

• Managerial Functions
General administrative duties that need to be carried
out virtually all productive organizations to achieve
desired outcomes.
• Managerial Roles
Specific categories of managerial behavior that managers
use to achieve desired outcomes.

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What Manager Do?
• Managers (or administrator)
• Individuals who achieve goals through other people.
Managerial activities
Make decisions
Allocate resources
Direct activities of other to
attain goals

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Where Managers Work?
Organization (School)
A consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two
or more people, that functions on a relatively
continuous basis to achieve a common goal or a set of
goals.

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Hierarchy and Collegiality as Types of Organization

• Hierarchy – likely to be ‘more directing, controlling and commanding’


(Bell,1989)
• Hierarchical pyramid:
Headteacher

Deputy Deputy

Department head Department head

Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher

 Collegiality – colleagues being involved, and co-operating, participating


and delegating within a structure where working as a decision-making
team is seen as important
Organizational Levels
• School management team
– Direct the activities of others
• top managers (school principal/head teacher)
• middle managers (Assistant Principal)
• first-line managers

• Operatives/teachers
– Work directly on a job or task and have no
responsibility to oversee the work of others.
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Planning
and decision Organizing

making
Inputs from the environment
• Human resources Goals attained
• Financial resources • Efficiently
• Physical resources • Effectively
• Information resources

Controlling Leading

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The Management Process

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Identifiable
Functions in
the
Management
Process

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Managerial Functions
• Planning
– Formulating future courses of action.
• Decision making
– Choosing among the alternatives for action.
• Organizing
– Deciding on the HR structure of the organization.
• Staffing
– Recruiting, training, and developing people.
• Communicating
– Providing information, direction, and feedback.
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• Motivating
– Providing meaningful work and valued rewards to
individuals pursuing collective objectives.
• Leading
– Serving as role models and adapting management
styles as the situation demands.
• Controlling
– Comparing desired results with actual results and
taking corrective action as needed.

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The Systems Relationship among the
Management Functions

Planning

Controlling Organizing

Leading
Exhibit1–42
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Ten Roles Managers Play

Managers play various roles as necessary while performing their


management functions so as to achieve organizational objectives.

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Technical Skills

Interpersonal Skills

Conceptual Skills
Fundamental
School Diagnostic Skills
Management
Skills Communication Skills

Decision-Making Skills

Time-Management Skills

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Fundamental Management Skills
• Technical
– Skills necessary to accomplish or understand the specific kind of
work being done in an organization.
• Interpersonal
– The ability to communicate with, understand, and motivate
both individuals and groups.
• Conceptual
– The manager’s ability to think in the abstract.
• Diagnostic
– The manager’s ability to visualize the most appropriate
response to a situation.
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• Communication
– The manager’s abilities both to convey ideas and information
effectively to others and to receive ideas and information
effectively from others.
• Decision-Making
– The manager’s ability to recognize and define problems and
opportunities correctly and then to select an appropriate
course of action to solve the problems and capitalize on
opportunities.
• Time-Management
– The manager’s ability to prioritize work, to work efficiently,
and to delegate appropriately.

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The Honeymoon Study:
How Managers Learn
to Manage
Job assignments Relationships
(‘the school of 30%
hard knocks’)
50%

Formal
training and
education
20%

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How Can Future Managers
Learn To Manage
Future managers can learn by;
• Integrating management theory (i.e. formal training &
education) and managerial practice (i.e. work-study and
internship)
• Observing role models
• Learning from experience in the school of hard knocks

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Ethical Problems in the Workplace
• Lying to the school manager
• Lying on reports or falsifying records
• Stealing and theft
• Sexual harassment
• Abusing drugs or alcohol
• Conflict of interest

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New Workplace Issues and
Challenges
Technology and Speed

Networking and
Boundaryless Globalization
Relationships and Diversity

Ethics and Knowledge,


Social Learning,
Responsibility Quality, and
Continuous
Improvement

Participative
Management, Knowledge
Empowerment, Management
and Teams
Change, Creativity, Innovation,
and Entrepreneurship
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Definition of administration
Define administration from the perspective of school
administration.
School administration is defined as a process of working
with and through others to accomplish school goals
effectively and efficiently (Sergiovanni, Kelleher, McCarthy
and Fowler 2009, 52).
Administration is linked with formal position in the
organisational structure.

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For the school principal for example, his or her job
is;
to coordinate, direct, and support the work of others by
defining objectives, evaluating performance, providing
organisational resources, building a supportive
psychological climate, running interference with parents,
planning, scheduling, bookkeeping, resolving teacher
conflicts, handling student problems, placating the central
office, and otherwise helping to make things go. (Ibid, 52)

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All these activities refer to the normal behaviour associated
with a principal’s job.
Leaders are always proactive, shape ideas, motivate
followers, establish goals and directions, and influence
others to think outside the box. Administration is also
related to policy.

Reading
Please read Chapters 1 and 2 of the book entitled Theories of Educational Leadership and
Management by Tony Bush (2003).

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Models of Educational Management
Models are essential concepts to explain theories in practice and as
such Bush (2003) has classified educational management into six
different models.
These models include:
1. formal,
2. collegial,
3. political,
4. subjective,
5. ambiguity, and
6. cultural.

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Formal Models

• In simple terms, formal models assume that organisations are built


around hierarchical systems whereby managers use rational means
to pursue the predetermined agreed goals that have been decided
by the organisation.
• Formal positions in the organisational structure allow the holder of
the position to exercise the legitimised authority over the
subordinates and as such the subordinates are required to follow
the decisions made by the superior. Bush (2003, 37 – 38)
highlighted seven features that characterise the formal models.

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1. Organisations are represented as systems because they are linked
with others, both inside and outside the organisations, and
formally such links are exemplified in the functioning of the
organisations.
A university, for example, is regarded as an open system and
although it maintains a definite boundary (having its own
constitution), it is related to a larger environment (we have in
Malaysia the Ministry of Higher Education) and it makes
exchanges with the environment.
Even in schools, we can see that there are several sub-units of
subjects that are functioning together to achieve the schools’ aims
through their interactions with each other.

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2. Official structures prevail and are portrayed through
organisational charts, by which formal positions are
arranged according to one’s position to represent a pattern
of relationships between members of the organisation.
In schools and other educational organisations, there are
organisational charts to portray official structures.

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3. Official structures are hierarchical and the emphasis is on vertical
relationships between positions. The hierarchical structures
legalised the control function of the superior over those being
supervised.
As an example, in school we can see that the school principal is
positioned at the top of the organisational chart and has control
over the school teachers. This is the same for relationships
between staff, for example the senior clerks with other office staff.
The same applies in other office structures where you will see the
head positioned at the top of organisational charts.

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4. Educational organisations have goals and therefore they
are regarded as goal-seeking organisations. In Malaysia,
we can see that schools are expected to develop both
students’ academic capability and nurture them to meet
the goal of becoming well rounded individuals as
envisaged through the national education philosophy.

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5. Decision making in educational organisations are made
through rational process, and is derived after an
intellectual process of decision-making whereby
decisions are weight against the aims to achieve
organisational goals.
Normally, there are individuals who are invited or
officially appointed to participate in the decision-making
process, for example through committees, and decisions
are considered to be objective and impartial.

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6. Authority in the organisational function is
represented through official position and
therefore leaders are considered to have such
authority based on their official positions in
the organisation.
School principals are assumed to have the
authority over the teachers due to their official
positions as arranged in the schools’ structure.

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7. Educational organisations are accountable to their
sponsoring agencies or funding bodies. Accountability
means that educational organisations are answerable to
the bodies that are funding them.
In Malaysia, public schools are funded by the Ministry of
Education (MOE). Therefore, these schools are
accountable to the MOE.

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Activity 1.1
• Give an example of a formal model by presenting its
organizational structure and describing its key
features.
• ___________________________________________
___________

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Collegial models

• The collegial models are regarded as more appropriate for


educational organisations because decision-making does not rest
on an individual, but it should be shared together with the
members of the organisations.
• The collegial principles emphasise on consensual decision-making
and decisions are derived after a process of discussion with some
or all members of the organisation, who are assumed to have a
common understanding about the aims of the organisation (Bush
2003).
• Bush describes five common features of the collegial models and
we shall now discuss each of the features in turn.

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1. The first feature relates to the normative nature of the decision-
making approach. Normative means that it is believed that
decision-making should be made through democratic principles
because agreement among members of the organization is
crucial to the achievement of organizational goals.
In schools for example, it is believed that decisions should be
made through a participative process among the teachers.
However, this may not be true in practice.

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2. The models also favour full participation of the school community
in the decision-making process through power sharing. Teachers
are professional staff belonging to the community of intellectuals
and are said to have the authority of expertise through their
professional knowledge and skills rather than on the official
positions in the organisational chart.
3. Members of the organisations are assumed to have a common set
of values, shared together to achieve the agreed educational
goals. Teachers have common values in schools focusing on
teaching as their core activities, and together they try to achieve
the educational objectives.

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4. Another salient feature of the collegial models relate to formal
representation and size. There will be individuals appointed to
participate in the decision making process through committees as
determined by the institution.
In school, for example, we have a management committee
whereby only those involved in the administrative functions are
invited to participate in the meetings. The size of the committee
is limited and it is sufficient to explain that decisions made reflect
the interests of various groups represented by those in the
committee structure.

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5. An important feature of the collegial models rests on the
assumption that decisions are derived through consensus.
Common set of values, shared vision and objectives become the
guiding principle and decisions are derived out of agreement and
compromises among the teachers, for examples, although there
might be conflicts.
There will be arguments during the process of decision-making,
but these arguments provide for better decision-making.
Finally, the most favorable options will be adopted by the
decision makers as they are considered to be beneficial to the
achievement of the organisational goals.

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Activity 1.2
• What is the main difference between the collegial
models and the formal models?
_________________________________________
____________

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Political models

• The political models are based on three underlying theories;


conflict theory, community power theory, and interest group
theory (Baldridge 1971). As an institution, educational
organisations are considered as complex organisations.
• They are fractured into several competing interest groups or power
blocs and Bush (2003) regards the decision-making in educational
organisations as a result of a bargaining and negotiation process.
Other scholars (Ball 1987; Hoyle 1999) as cited in Bush have
described educational organisations as “micro politics”.

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• Politically, many bargaining processes occur within the
organisations and politics influence the nature of organisational
functioning. It is assumed that conflicts happen in educational
organisations whether they are universities or colleges or schools.
These conflicts between groups can be termed as politics. There
are six common features that learners need to understand about
politics in organisations.

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These are listed as follows:
It is assumed that organisations are coalitions comprised of a variety
of individuals and diverse interest groups, and coalitions are formed
because of interdependence among the individuals and groups.
Therefore, the focus is on group activity. They need each other,
although their interests and preferences may collide.
Political approaches form the major activities whereby groups will
maneuver against each other for political benefits, thus emphasising
groups’ supremacy as opposed to institutional success.
However, ultimately, the groups will negotiate towards achieving an
equilibrium point of compromise.

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1. The major concern of the political models is on interests and
interest groups. Differences exist among individuals and groups in
terms of beliefs, values, preferences, information and perceptions
of reality.
Individuals pursue individual goals, but it is more beneficial if
certain individuals form a group that have common interests and
pursue such group’s goals. Therefore, in such conditions politics
will be more visible and dominant. Bush (2003) also argued that
differences between groups can lead to fragmentation affecting
organisational unity.

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2. Conflicts are central to organisational dynamics due to
enduring differences and scarce resources especially when
financial assistance is becoming more stringent due to criteria
in budget allocation.
Political activities are more prevalent because individuals and
groups will compete to get what they want. Thus, power
becomes the most important element, and the distribution of
resources for example and decisions made will reflect the
outcome of the political activities among the major players in
the organisations.

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3. The political models also assume that organisational goals are
unstable, ambiguous and contested (Bush 2003, 93).
Organisational goals and decisions are derived as a result of a
process of bargaining, negotiation, and politicking for position
among the major players in the organisational system, and it is not
a simple decision made by those at the top (Bolman and Deal
1991).
These activities are illustrated by individuals and groups because
they have their own purposes and will act to ensure that their
purposes are accomplished, which sometimes are in contrast
between individuals’, groups’ and organisational goals.

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4. Decision making is the outcome of a process of bargaining and
negotiation. It has to go through several stages before decisions
are derived. Normally, individuals and groups will pursue their
interests, form coalition and influence the decision-making
process.
Finally, although decisions have been made through the process
of bargaining and negotiation, they will not resolve the problems
or issues at hand, but will provide another avenue for future
negotiations especially by those unsuccessful individuals or
groups.

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5. Power is the foundation of politics. The final outcome of the
political activities determines who has more power, and as such
the dominant individuals and groups are more likely to gain the
needed power.
Therefore, to solve many of the organisational problems, a
political interpretation is necessary whereby it sets the stage for
power manipulations and struggles in decision-making activities
(Bolman and Deal 1991).

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Activity 1.3
• Identify the various groups in your workplace.
_________________________________________
_____________

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Subjective models

• Subjective models focus on individuals because each individual has


a subjective and selective perception of the organisation and
organisations are indeed the creations of the people within them
(Bush 2003,113).
• It is normal to assume that different people bring with them
different perceptions and interpretations due to differences in their
background or experiences or upbringing, thus these will bring
about different meanings to them.
• According to Bush, there are five significant features related to the
subjective models.

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1. The subjective models stress on the importance of individual’s
beliefs and perceptions, thus the focus is on individual rather than
on the institution. As an individual, the goal is to satisfy an
individual’s aims, such as to get promotion, rewards, and other
individual benefits.
2. Meanings become the primary concern because people bring with
them their own perceptions and interpretations. Each individual
has his or her own interpretation of what is seen or is experienced
that may not be the same with other interpretation behaviour will
bring about different meanings although they are looking at the
same event.

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3. Values, background and experience will produce different
meanings. We all come from different backgrounds. So,
interpretations derived reflect different values, background and
experience. Sometimes, these can lead to conflicts because it is
normal as in the political models that conflicts can emerge as a
result of competing values between individuals.
4. Structure in the organisation is regarded as a result of human
interactions and is not fixed or predetermined (Bush, 2003, 117).
The organisational chart is just portraying the organisation.
However, human behaviour and interactions can lead to change
regardless of what is shown in the organisational chart.

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5. The emphasis on goals is on the individual goals as opposed to
organisational goals. It is viewed that individuals have and will
pursue individual’s goals. As a teacher, the aim is to get promotion
when the promotion is due. Regardless of what transpired in the
organisation, individual aim will focus on getting promotion.

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Activity 1.4
• What are the important features of subjective
models?
_________________________________________
_____________

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Ambiguity models

The ambiguity models assume that organisations are unpredictable


and their objectives are not easily understood. Educational
organisations are complex organisations. There are nine common
features that can explain the model.

1. Organisational goals are ambiguous and inconsistent. In schools


for example, teachers pursue individuals’ goals as opposed to
organisational goals. Teachers aim for promotion, while schools
have goals either to achieve good examination results, or good in
sports, or produce disciplined students, or good in everything.

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2. Educational organisations have problematic technology and their
processes are not easily understood. Teachers can teach, but
what the students learn can only be seen through examinations
and how they learn is not clear. It is not like producing goods
where the process is the same for all products.
3. Educational organisations are also fragmented and divided into
several groups. They are loose coupling organisations. It is like
having many families and their relationships are made official
based on their existence as members of the organisation.

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4. The organisational structure of educational organisations is
problematic and unlike the formal model, the structural
relationships may overlap because power is distributed among the
members. School principals may have power over the teachers,
but there are expert teachers who have superior knowledge in
their fields as compared with the principals.
5. Educational organisations are viewed as client-serving
organisations. Teachers in schools are basically giving their
services to fulfill the needs and expectations of the students.
Teachers are considered professionals who serve to respond to
the needs of the students.

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6. The participation of the members in the decision-making process
is fluid, meaning that teachers, involvement in many activities is
dependent on their available time and the effort put in to
participate.
7. Schools as educational organisations are susceptible to their
environment. There are communities, parents, government
agencies and many other organisations around schools.
Therefore, they are open to external environment and have to
react and respond to the external pressures.

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8. Decisions in educational organisations are unplanned because
unlike the formal models which assume that decisions are derived
through rational process, in the ambiguity models decisions are
not necessarily made through rational process. There are
decisions that have to be made based on the merit of the case or
situation and not necessarily based on official decision-making
bodies.
9. Decentralisation of decision making is emphasised because
educational organisations are complex and unpredictable, and
decisions are better made at the sub-units and individual levels.
Teaching activities are good examples. How teachers teach and
what teachers should do in class, are left to the teachers to
decide.
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Activity 1.5
• Identify the advantages and disadvantages of the
ambiguity models.
______________________________________________
________

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Cultural models

• The final educational model discussed by Bush (2003) is the


cultural models. Morgan (1997) and Beare, Caldwell and Milikan
(1989) have also mentioned the cultural models in educational
organisations.
• The cultural models assume that beliefs, values and ideology are at
the heart of organisations (Bush, 2003, 156). These informal
components of the organisations are dominant as opposed to
structural components of the organisations. Rituals and symbols
are prevalent as culture and these make the organisations have
unique qualities as reflected through shared meanings among the
members in the organisations. There are four major characteristics
of the cultural models.
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1. The cultural models focus on the values and beliefs of the
members of the organisations. You can see that there are values
and beliefs that become the underlying component that shape the
attitudes and behaviours of the members in your work place.
Normally, these beliefs and values are shared by the members and
are translated into actions and behaviours.
2. Shared norms and meanings are translated into organisational
culture because it is assumed that the members will interact in
ways that eventually lead to a common behaviour that is
acceptable to the organisation. In the short term, it becomes the
norms and over time it becomes the culture of the organisation.

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3. Beliefs and norms are expressed through rituals and ceremonies
throughout the organisation. We always celebrate the school
success in sports or examination results. Schools also organise an
annual prize giving day.
4. The existence of heroes and heroines is accepted because heroes
and heroines are those members who have achieved certain
accomplishments and have carried with them the values, beliefs
and ideology that fit with the organisational culture. There are
excellent teachers who become our school heroes and there are
also students who represent the country in various activities, and
there are also former students who have excelled in their careers
whom the school is proud of.
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Activity 1.6
• Illustrate the characteristics of the cultural models.
______________________________________________
________

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References
1. Bush, T (2005) Theories of Educational Leadership and Management, 3rd edn, London:
SAGE Publications.
2. Bush, T and Middlewood, D (2005) Leading and Managing People in Education, London:
SAGE Publications.
3. Davies, B, Ellison, E and Bowring-Carr, C (2005) School Leadership in the 21st Century,
London: Routledge.
4. Everard, K B, Morris, G and Wilson, I (2004) Effective School Management, 4th edn,
London: Paul Chapman.
5. Hoy, W K and Miskel, C G (2005) Educational Administration: Theory, Research, Practice,
7th edn, New York: McGraw-Hill.
6. Maxwell, J C (2008) The Maxwell Daily Reader: 365 Days of Insight to Develop the Leader
Within You and Influence Those Around You, New York: Thomas Nelson Pub.
7. Razik, T A and Swanson, A D (2010) Fundamental Concepts of Educational Leadership
& Management, 3rd edn, Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
9. Sergiovanni, T J, Kelleher, P, McCarthy, M and Fowler, F C (2009) Educational Governance
and Administration, 6th edn, Boston: Pearson.
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