Counseling Multiracial Older

Adults
Benedetta Rossi; Josh Jarvi
Multiracial Individuals

Biological parents or lineage are of two or more different racial

backgrounds
● 2013: 9M multiracial Americans
● 2.4% of national population (underestimation)
● 6.9% if considering people’s parents and grandparents racial
background
Issues with studying multiracial individuals
People confound race with ethnicity
Racial identity can be fluid and change over time
● 29% previously thought of themselves as 2 or more races
● 70% always thought of themselves as one race
Multiracial identity gap
● 39% consider to be multiracial
Census doesn’t consider Hispanic as a race
Not a single group
Historical Challenges
1920 “one drop rule”: if you had one “drop” of African ancestry had to be considered black
Mixed Asian-White could not be considered white
● Citizenship eligibility
1960 practice of self-definition: head of household indicated race of family
Civil Rights Movement ended legal necessity of identifying as black if mixed African
American
Loving v Virginia (1967) overruled antimiscegenation laws prohibiting interracial
marriages
● 400,000 biracial children in 1970 to 1.5M in 1990
● New context for children to define themselves
Current challenges in society
US system of racial stratification: races viewed separate and different
● “The most important thing about races was the boundaries between them (…) it
was essential to maintain the boundaries that defined one’s superiority, to keep
people from the lower categories from slipping surreptitiously upward.” (Paul
Spickard, 1992)
Biracial person challenges the rigid boundaries between Black and White
● “Which side are you on? Where do you stand?”
● “What are you?”
Concerns of bringing children into a racially polarized society
High rates of victimization by parent cultures
Microaggression, discrimination and racism
Mental Health Concerns

● Dilemma in developing cohesive, well-integrated self-concept

● Substance abuse
● Identity confusion
● Self-hatred
● Suicide
● Delinquency
● Alienation
● Feelings of guilt and disloyalty
Strengths
Access and support from several cultural communities
60% proud of mixed racial background
● Cultural competence
● More open to different cultures
Resilience
● Appreciation and empathy for cultural diversity
Adolescents
● Strong sense of self + strong sense of biracial heritage = more likely to meet
challenges of adolescence
Identity Development Theories
Marginal Person Model (Stonequist, 1937): first model of biracial identity
New and Positive Model (Cross, 1987): Personal identity (PI) vs reference group
orientation (RGO)
● Personal identity
● Choice of group categorization
● Enmeshment/ Denial
● Appreciation
● Integration
Life span focus
Root’s model of mixed-race identity
4 healthy resolutions of developing a healthy identity
● Acceptance of identity society assigns the person
● Identification with both racial groups
● Identification with single racial group
● Identification as a new racial group: multiracial identity
6 themes: uniqueness, acceptance/belonging, physical appearance, sexuality, self-
esteem, identity
Biracial Identity Development
Kerwin & Ponterotto transition points
● Preschool years
● Entry into school
● Adolescence
● College and adult years
Importance of self-acceptance of their multiracial heritage
Biracial ID lifelong process but
● Fails to mention ID in older adults
Future research
Choice process and factors that influence the models and their salience
Existence of stages and feelings of multiracial person in each of the stages
Relationships between different indicators of mental health and levels of biracial
identity development
Development of clinical assessments scales/tools
Should be conducted outside of US
Clinical Implications
Provide safe environment
Psychoeducational approach: help understand oppression and racism
Empower clients to actively formulate identities
Discuss benefits of adopting a biracial identity
McRoy and Freeman (1986) development of positive racial identities
Prevention
● Teach parents skills to facilitate formation of healthy self-concept
● Provide child with biracial label
Don’t use biased language
Be self-aware: how biases may influence multiracial clients
Clinical implications cont.
Identify and acknowledge their own strengths, abilities, role models
Emphasize environmental factors that can help positive identity development
Interracial couples
● understand how partners’ different worldviews impact relationship’s dynamics
See multiracial people in an holistic fashion
Emphasize the freedom to choose one’s identity
Know historical and sociopolitical influences
Multiracial identity might not be the problem
● Avoid pathologizing
Counseling Older Adults
● Overview of Population
● Strengths of the Older Adults
● Societal Impacts
● Physical and Mental Health/Counseling Concerns of Older Adults
● Social Theories on Aging (Gerontology)
● Clinical Implications
Overview of Population

● Identified as individuals aged 65 years and older

● Makes up 16.2% of the U.S. Population
● Currently within an aging society, not equipped to handle the baby
boomer population as older adults
○ Less resources, lacking information on therapies and medications
for the elderly
Strengths of the Population

● Good emotional stability

○ High affective well-being
○ Understanding and managing emotions
● Socially engaged
● High levels of resilience and dealing with stressors
● Years of life and work experiences
● Value self-identity and autonomy
Societal Factors

● Ageism
○ Negative attitudes toward the process of aging or older individuals
● Elder Abuse and Neglect
○ Emotional, financial, physical, and sexual abuse (health care)
● Lack of Education
● Social Security
● Gender Norms
Physical Health and Disabilities

● Loss of Hearing and Vision

● Cardiovascular Disease
● Insomnia
● High risk of diabetes
● Stroke
● Cancer
● Mobility Issues
Mental Health Concerns

● Mental Deterioration
○ Not mentally incompetent
● Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease
● Social Isolation, Depression, and Suicide
○ Loneliness and Isolation
○ Experience of Loss
○ Substance Abuse
Social Theories on Aging

● Disengagement Theory
○ As one ages, their connection to society decreases
● Cumulative Advantage/Disadvantage Theory
○ Advantages or disadvantages earlier in life have stronger
implications throughout the lifespan
○ “The rich get richer and the poor get poorer”
Counseling Implications for Older Adults

● Things to Consider:
○ Potential physical limitations
○ Displaying age bias
○ Contributions to cognitive decline
○ Avoid “Elderspeak” and infantilizing
○ Medication is not always the answer
Counseling Implications for Older Adults cont.
● Mental Health Practices:
○ Allow client to self-report changes in memory or other cognitive functions
○ Obtain reports from family members and friends regarding the client’s cognitive
performance
○ Take note of any noticeable changes in cognitive performance
● Assisting Elders with Dementia:
○ Demonstrate patience and understanding
○ Provide coping strategies with potential life and familial stressors - self-care
○ Address and discuss family dynamics, personal care, allocation of responsibilities
○ Provide resources on financial and legal matters- power of attorney
○ Family counseling to enhance effective communication
■ Avoid elderspeak
Counseling Older Adults with Dementia Who are Dealing with
Death: Innovative Interventions for Practitioners

● Older adults with dementia may face greater difficulty in

understanding and dealing with death-related issues because of
cognitive and memory changes.
● Spaced Retrieval
○ Repetitive instruction and recall over an increased time interval
○ Assists in recalling new information, and taps into implicit memory
● Group Buddies
○ Play therapy
○ Inanimate objects
Future Research
● 4% of mental health clientele, 2% of private practice clientele
○ Why older adults do not seek mental health counseling and assistance?
● As the Baby Boomer populations continues to age, the 65+ population grows
○ Limited resources, access to health care and social security
● Taking an intersectional approach when studying older adults
○ Diverse sample populations taking into consideration other identities
● Effects on homeless older adults
Intersection of populations; Missing research?

● 1990-2009: 6% of studies consisted of multiracial adults 50+

● Relative ease of data collection in high schools and colleges
● Researchers’ interest in studying multiracial identity development for
13-25 year-olds
Issues faced by multiracial adults
● Resolving earlier experiences of marginality
● Feelings of inferiority
○ Invisible and/or less-valued identities in society
● Embarrassment of one’s racial heritage
○ Identity confusion
● Isolation
○ Not successfully integrating multiple identities with other life
areas
● Racism and socio-political dynamics
Inferences about Multiracial Adults

● Ethnic and Minority group members in the elder community place a

high value on religious beliefs, which contribute to stronger senses of
hope, optimism, meaning of life, and better mental health
● Importance of family
● Do not seek out treatment
● Multiple Discrimination
Counseling Implications for Multiracial Adults

● Knowledge of historical and sociopolitical context of race mixing in the US

● How history has shaped contemporary issues of these populations
● Understand the nuances of all identities present (strengths and challenges of
different racial identities, older identities)
● Identities are not mutually exclusive (acknowledge as holistic individuals)
● Acknowledge generation gap and limitations to the population
Clinical Practices

● Focus on the strengths of the individual

● Take part in personal narrative, self-disclosure, and reflection
● Include client in decision-making processes
● Consider familial factors
● Emphasize importance of relationships, being with others
Future research for multiracial older adults

● Longitudinal research to determine if trajectory of mixed-race identity

development occurs with aging
● Different age groups and transitional identity development periods
● Different age groups to evaluate influence of structural factors on
identity
References
Charmaraman, L., Woo, M., Quach, A., & Erkut, S. (2014). How have researchers studied multiracial populations? A
content and methodological review of 20 years of research. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology,
20(3), 336–352. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0035437
Fullen, M. C. (2016). Counseling for wellness with older adults. AdultSpan Journal, 15(2), 109-123
Henriksen Jr., R. C., & Maxwell, M. J. (2016). Counseling the Fastest Growing Population in America: Those with Multiple
Heritage Backgrounds. Journal Of Mental Health Counseling, 38(1), 1-11. doi:10.17744/mehc.38.1.01
Kenney, K. R., & Kenney, M. E. (2012). Contemporary US multiple heritage couples, individuals, and families: Issues,
concerns, and counseling implications. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 99-112.
doi:10.1080/09515070.2012.674682
Kerwin, C. & Ponterotto, J.G. (1995). Biracial Identity Development: Theory and Research. Handbook of Multicultural
Counseling (pp 199-217)
Lewis, M. M., & Trzinski, A. L. (2006). Counseling older adults with dementia who are dealing with death: Innovative i
nterventions for practitioners. Death Studies, 30, 777-787.
Nuttgens, S. (2010). Biracial Identity Theory and Research Juxtaposed with Narrative Accounts of a Biracial Individual.
Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 27(5), 355–364. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-010-0209-6
References
Pew Research Center(2015). Multiracial in America: Proud, Diverse and growing in numbers. Washington, DC: Rich
Morin
Pew Research Center(2015). How Pew Research Conducted Its Survey on Multiracial Americans. Washington, DC:
Sarah Kehaulani Goo
Poston, W. S. C. (1990). The Biracial Identity Development Model: A Needed Addition. Journal of Counseling &
Development, 69(2), 152–155. http://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1990.tb01477.x
Root, M.P.P. (1990) Resolving “other” status: Identity Development of Biracial Individuals. Diversity and Complexity in
Feminist Therapy. 185-205
Root, M.P.P (1998). Facilitating Psychotherapy with Asian American Clients. Counseling American Minorities. 214-234
Sue, D.W. & Sue, D. (2015). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (7th ed.). New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Tashiro, C. J. (2002). Considering the significance of ancestry through the prism of mixed-race identity. ANS. Advances in
Nursing Science, 25(2), 1–21. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12484638
Tatum, B. (1997). Why are all the Blacks Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? Identity Development in Adolescence,
52–73. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.02.020
Thomas, S. P. (2016) Counseling older adults about cognitive decline, Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 37,, 135-136.