Cluster 4

Anita Woolfolk’s Educational Psychology

Learner Differences and Learning Needs

“A child miseducated is a child lost.”
John F. Kennedy
 Language and Labeling
Exceptional Students: Students who have abilities or
problems so significant that they require special
education or other services to reach their full potential
use of labeling is controversial
• Disadvantages • Advantages
– does not tell which methods – for younger student-may lead
teachers should use to a protective response from
– self-fulfilling prophecies society
– may be viewed as permanent – open doors to special
– stigmas programs
– mistaken for explanations – help professionals
communicate findings and
– emphasize most negative information
aspect of student
– help secure financial
assistance
 Intelligence
• General definition: ability(s) to acquire and use knowledge for
solving problems and adapting to the world.
– Early notions
• the capacity to learn
• total knowledge a persona has acquired
• ability to adapt to new situations and environments in general
– Today-general consensus that intelligence involves abstract
reasoning, problem-solving and decision making
• Varying Theories
• Spearman (1927)-one factor, g, or general intelligence needed to
perform any mental task AND s or specific abilities needed to
perform specific tasks
• Carroll (1993)- a few broad abilities and at least 70 specific
abilities- See figure 9.1, p. 105
• Thurston (1938)-verbal comprehension, memory, reasoning,
ability to visualize spatial relationships, numerical ability, word
influences and perceptual speed
 • Guilford (1988)- faces of intellect: 180 combinations
(6 operations x 5 contents x 6 products)

A. Mental Operations B. Contents-what we C. Products, end

are thinking results of our
thinking
1. Cognition 1. Visual content 1. Units
2. Convergent thinking 2. Auditory content 2. Classes
3. Divergent thinking 3. Word meanings 3. Relations
4. Evaluation 4. Symbols 4. Systems
5. Immediate memory 5. Behaviors 5. Transformations
6. Memory over time 6. Implications
 • Howard Gardner (1983, 1993) -MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Intelligence Description
Logical- Logical or numerical patterns
mathematical and long chains of reasoning
Linguistic Sensitivity to sounds,
rhythms, word meanings, an
different language functions
Musical Sensitivity to pitch, melody
and tone
Spatial Perceive visual world
accurately/transform, modify
aspects- think 3-D
Bodily-kinesthetic Skill at controlling bodily
movements and handling
objects
Interpersonal Ability to understand and
effectively interact with
others-appropriate response
to others moods, etc..
Intrapersonal Understand oneself and direct
life
Naturalist Make distinctions in natural
world-recognize plants,
animals, etc…
Example Teacher Implications
Scientist, numbers, logic and
mathematician classification to
quantify or clarify idea
Author, journalist, poet, Get students to write or
speaker talk about the idea
Composer, musician Use sounds or set ideas
into rhythm/melody
navigator, architect, Visualize, draw
artists conceptualize idea
spatially
Athlete, dancer, Involve whole body/use
surgeon, craftspeople hands-on experiences
Therapist, salesperson Use of peer, cross age,
and/or cooperative
learning
Theologians, Think about
psychologist capacities/feelings as
learners and persons
Biologist, farmer, Experiences that
botanist, landscaper classify different types
of objects/analyze
classification schemas
• Sternberg (1985, 1990)-Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
(Table 9.3, p. 108)

Analytic Intelligence Creativity Practical Intelligence

Basic problem solving Coping with new Common sense, survival
processes experiences skills
-analyze -create -use
-judge -design -apply
-evaluate -Invent -put into practice
-compare and contrast -originate
Involves the component -imagine
mental processes that
lead to a more or less
intelligent behavior
 Measuring Intelligence
• Alfred Binet (1904) and associate Simon developed 58 tests foir children
3-13 years for determining mental age.
– Mental Age: a score based on average abilities for a certain age group
– Intelligence Quotient (IQ): added to Binet’s test after it was brought
to the US and revised at Stanford University
– Formula of Mental Age Divided by Chronological age x 100 = IQ proved
insufficient because of inconsistency in growth of mental age.
– Deviation IQ was the solution: score based on statistical comparison
of individual’s performance with the average performance of others in
that age group.
 Average score is 100
 50% of people score over 100
 50% of people score under 100
 68% of people score between 85-115
 IQ scores predict achievement well
 IQ and real life? still questionable
 Heredity or environment? Nature vs. Nurture….both have value
 Cognitive/Learning Styles
• Cognitive Styles: Modes of perceiving, remembering, thinking, problem
solving, decision making and organizing information
– Field Dependence: Cognitive style in which patterns are perceived as
wholes; orientation toward people. Benefit from well structured,
sequential assignments
– Field Independence: Cognitive style in which separate parts of a
pattern are perceived and analyzed. Can impose structure on a chaotic
situation
– Impulsive Tempo: Cognitive style of responding quickly but often
inaccurately
– Self-instruction: Talking yourself through the steps of a task
– Reflective Tempo: Cognitive style of responding slowly, carefully, ,and
accurately. Need help in focusing on the “meat of the matter” and
working steadily to reach a goal

• Learning Styles: Characteristic approaches to learning and studying

• Learning Preferences: Preferred ways of studying and learning such as
using pictures, group work, etc…
• Deep Processing Approach: see learning materials or activities as a means
for understanding underlying concepts or meanings.
• Surface Processing Approach: focus on memorizing the materials, not
understanding them
 Learning Disabilities
• General term used to describe a broad group of disorders that
may manifest as an imperfect ability to listen, speak, do math,
write, read, or reason.
• Early diagnosis is important so that the LD student does not
develop learned helplessness, that all efforts will lead to failure
based on past experiences
• Most are of average to above average intelligence
• Little agreement on definition
• Struggles with learning
• NOT ,mentally retarded, emotionally disturbed, impaired or brain
damaged
• Varied symptoms
• Demonstrate difficulties in one or two subject areas
• Many possess the following characteristics:
– Attention problems, hyperactivity, impulsivity
– Difficulty organizing and interpreting visual and auditory information
– Disorders of thinking, memory, speech and hearing
– Difficulty making and keeping friends
– Lack effective ways to approach academic tasks
 Communication Disorders
• Speech Impairments
– Articulation Disorder-pronunciation difficulties
– Stuttering-repetitions, prolongations, and hesitations that
lock flow of speech
– Voicing Problems-inappropriate pitch, ,quality, loudness or
intonation
• Language Disorders
– Seldom Speak
– Rely on gestures
Mentally Retarded See Guidelines, p. 124
• Substantial limitations in mental function- Intermittent
• Extensive
• Profound
• Basic Skills- Guidelines, p. 130- Teaching Students with Mild Retardation
• Social, academic, vocational, domestic
• Transitional Programming- Gradual preparation of exceptional students
to move from HS into further education or training, employment, or
community involvement
 Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
6 dimensions
• Conduct disorders - aggressive, destructive, disobedient,
uncooperative, distractible, disruptive, and persistent
• Anxiety-withdrawal disorders-anxious, withdrawn, shy, depressed,
and hypersensitive, cry easily, have little confidence, few social skills
and few friends
• Attentional problems/immaturity-short attention span, frequent
daydreaming, little initiative, messiness and poor coordination
• Motor excess- Restlessness, tension, inability to sit still or stop
talking
• Socialized aggression-behaviors demonstrated by youth who are
reinforced for these behaviors by their culture 9gang members)
• Psychotic Behavior- bizare behaviors stemming from fantasies and
ideas not related to reality

See Guidelines, p. 126-Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems

 Less Prevalent, More Severe Disorders
• Health Impairments
– Orthodontic devices- braces, wheelchairs that aid people
with physical disabilities
– Cerebral Palsy-condition involving a range of motor or coordination
difficulties due to brain damage. Often have secondary handicaps
such as hearing impairments, speech problems, and mild mental
retardation
– Seizure Disorders-Epilepsy-abnormal electrical charges in the brain.
• Deaf & Hard of Hearing
• Low Vision and Blindness
Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders
• Hyperactivity: Behavior disorder marked by atypical, excessive
restlessness and inattentiveness.
*More boys than girls are labeled *Abused term-overly used
*Problems directing and maintaining attention in learning situations
• Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder
• Behaviors characterized by
• More physically active and inattentive than other children
• Difficulty responding appropriately and working steadily
toward a goal
• May have difficulty in controlling their behaviors
• Disability: the inability to do something specific such as walk or
hear
• Handicap: refers to the difficulties that people with disabilities
encounter in some situations
• The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law
94-142)
– Guarantees a free public education to every child between
the4 ages of 3 and 21 regardless of how seriously
handicapped toward full inclusion (integrations of all
students, including those with severe disabilities, into
regular classrooms)
• Regular Education Initiative
– Educational movement that advocates giving regular
education teachers, not special education teachers,
responsibility for teaching mildly, and sometimes
moderately, handicapped children
• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
– Amendment of PL94-142 that replaced the word
handicapped with DISABLED and expanded services
for these students. ADA-further changes
• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
– Legislation prohibiting discrimination against persons with
disabilities in employment, transportation, public access local
government and communications.
– Three key points to the amendment
• Least Restrictive Environment
– Placement of each child in as normal an educational setting as possible
• Individualized Education Program (IEP)
– Annually revised program for an exceptional student
– Details present achievement level, goals and strategies
– Drawn up by parents, teachers, specialists and when possible, student
• Protection
– Protection of rights of students and their parents
 Ability Differences and Teaching
• Between Class Ability Grouping (tracking)
– Grouping according to measured abilities
– Research indicates it is good for high achievers but not low ability
students-low ability classes receive lower-quality instruction
– teachers emphasize lower-level objectives and routine procedures with
less academic focus
– more management problems leading to increased stress and decreased
enthusiasm
– Teachers’ negative attitudes may = lower expectations communicated to
students
– Student self-esteem suffers
– Disproportionate number of minority and low socioeconomic students
assigned to classes—re-segregation
– Limited friendships—only in same ability groups
– Assignments to tracks made on basis of IQ-not a good predictor of
subject area performance
• Non-graded elementary school/Joplin plan
– Students grouped by ability in particular subjects, regardless of age or
grades
Within Class Ability Grouping
-Frequently used in elementary schools for reading
-System of grouping in which students in a class are divided into two
or three groups based on ability in an attempt to accommodate student
differences