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Chapter 15

The Money
Supply Process
Three Players in the Money
Supply Process

• Central bank (Federal Reserve System)


• Banks (depository institutions; financial
intermediaries)
• Depositors (individuals and institutions)

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The Fed’s Balance Sheet
Federal Reserve System

Assets Liabilities
Securities Currency in circulation

Loans to Financial Reserves


Institutions

• Liabilities
– Currency in circulation: in the hands of the public
– Reserves: bank deposits at the Fed and vault cash
• Assets
– Government securities: holdings by the Fed that affect
money supply and earn interest
– Discount loans: provide reserves to banks and earn the
discount rate

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Control of the Monetary Base

High-powered money
MB = C + R
C = currency in circulation
R = total reserves in the banking system

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Open Market Purchase from a
Bank

Banking System Federal Reserve System


Assets Liabilities Assets Liabilities
Securities - $100m Securities +$100m Reserves +$100m
Reserves +$100m

• Net result is that reserves have increased by $100


• No change in currency
• Monetary base has risen by $100

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Open Market Purchase from the
Nonbank Public

Banking System Federal Reserve System


Assets Liabilities Assets Liabilities
Reserve +$100m Checkable +$100m Securities +$100m Reserves +$100m
s deposits

• Person selling bonds to the Fed deposits the Fed’s


check in the bank
• Identical result as the purchase from a bank

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Open Market Purchase from
the Nonbank Public (cont’d)

Nonbank Public Federal Reserve System


Assets Liabilities Assets Liabilities
Securities -$100m Securities +$100m Currency in +$100m
circulation
Currency +$100m

• The person selling the bonds cashes the Fed’s check


• Reserves are unchanged
• Currency in circulation increases by the amount of
the open market purchase
• Monetary base increases by the amount of the open
market purchase
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Open Market Purchase: Summary

• The effect of an open market purchase on


reserves depends on whether the seller of
the bonds keeps the proceeds from the sale
in currency or in deposits
• The effect of an open market purchase on
the monetary base always increases the
monetary base by the amount of the
purchase

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Open Market Sale

Nonbank Public Federal Reserve System


Assets Liabilities Assets Liabilities
Securities +$100m Securities -$100m Currency in -$100m
circulation
Currency -$100m

• Reduces the monetary base by the amount of the


sale
• Reserves remain unchanged
• The effect of open market operations on the
monetary base is much more certain than the
effect on reserves

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Shifts from Deposits into
Currency
Nonbank Public Banking System
Assets Liabilities Assets Liabilities
Checkable -$100m Reserves -$100m Checkable -$100m
deposits deposits
Currency +$100m

Federal Reserve System

Assets Liabilities
Currency in +$100m
circulation
Reserves -$100m

•Net effect on monetary liabilities is zero; Reserves are


changed by random fluctuations; Monetary base is a more
stable variable
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Loans to Financial Institutions

Banking System Federal Reserve System


Assets Liabilities Assets Liabilities
Reserve +$100m Loans +$100m Loans +$100m Reserves +$100m
s
(borrowing from Fed) (borrowing from
Fed)

• Monetary liabilities of the Fed have increased by


$100
• Monetary base also increases by this amount

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Other Factors that Affect the
Monetary Base

• Float
• Treasury deposits at the Federal Reserve
• Interventions in the foreign exchange
market

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Overview of The Fed’s Ability to
Control the Monetary Base

• Open market operations are controlled by the Fed


• The Fed cannot determine the amount of borrowing
by banks from the Fed
• Split the monetary base into two components
MBn= MB - BR
• The money supply is positively related to both the
non-borrowed monetary base MBn and
to the level of borrowed reserves, BR, from
the Fed

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Multiple Deposit Creation: A
Simple Model
Deposit Creation: Single Bank

First National Bank First National Bank


Assets Liabilities Assets Liabilities
Securities -$100m Securities -$100m Checkable +$100m
deposits
Reserves +$100m Reserves +$100m
Loans +$100m

First National Bank


Assets Liabilities
Securities -$100m
Loans +$100m

•Excess reserves increase; Bank loans out the excess reserves; Creates
a checking account; Borrower makes purchases; The Money supply has
increased
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Multiple Deposit Creation: A
Simple Model (Cont’d)
Deposit Creation: The Banking System
Bank A Bank A
Assets Liabilities Assets Liabilities
Reserves +$100 Checkable +$100 Reserves +$10 Checkable +$100
m deposits m deposits m
Loans +$90

Bank B Bank B
Assets Liabilities Assets Liabilities
Reserves +$90 Checkable +$90 Reserves +$9 Checkable +$90
deposits deposits
Loans +$81

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Table 1 Creation of Deposits (assuming
10% reserve requirement and a $100
increase in reserves)

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Deriving The Formula for Multiple
Deposit Creation
Assuming banks do not hold excess reserves
Required Reserves (RR ) = Total Reserves (R)
RR = Required Reserve Ratio (r ) times the total amount
of checkable deposits (D)
Substituting
r  D=R
Dividing both sides by r
1
D=  R
r
Taking the change in both sides yields
1
D =  R
r

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Critique of the Simple Model

• Holding cash stops the process


– Currency has no multiple deposit expansion
• Banks may not use all of their excess
reserves to buy securities or make loans.
• Depositors’ decisions (how much currency to
hold) and bank’s decisions (amount of
excess reserves to hold) also cause the
money supply to change.

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Factors that Determine the
Money Supply

• Changes in the nonborrowed monetary base


MBn
– The money supply is positively related to the
non-borrowed monetary base MBn
• Changes in borrowed reserves from the Fed
– The money supply is positively related to the
level of borrowed reserves, BR, from the Fed

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Factors that Determine the
Money Supply (cont’d)

• Changes in the required reserves ratio


– The money supply is negatively related to the
required reserve ratio.
• Changes in currency holdings
– The money supply is negatively related to
currency holdings.
• Changes in excess reserves
– The money supply is negatively related to the
amount of excess reserves.

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Overview of the Money Supply Process
Summary Table 1 Money Supply Response

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The Money Multiplier

• Define money as currency plus checkable


deposits: M1
• Link the money supply (M) to the monetary
base (MB) and let m be the money multiplier

M  m  MB
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Deriving the Money Multiplier

• Assume that the desired holdings of


currency C and excess reserves ER grow
proportionally with checkable deposits D.
• Then,
c = {C/D} = currency ratio
e = {ER/D} = excess reserves ratio

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Deriving the
Money Multiplier (cont’d)

The total amount of reserves (R ) equals the sum of


required reserves (RR ) and excess reserves (ER).
R = RR + ER
The total amount of required reserves equals the required
reserve ratio times the amount of checkable deposits
RR = r × D
Subsituting for RR in the first equation
R = (r × D) + ER
The Fed sets r to less than 1

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Deriving the
Money Multiplier (cont’d)

• The monetary base MB equals currency (C)


plus reserves (R):
MB = C + R = C + (r x D) + ER
• Equation reveals the amount of the
monetary base needed to support the
existing amounts of checkable deposits,
currency and excess reserves.

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Deriving the
Money Multiplier (cont’d)
c = {C / D}  C = c  D and
e = {ER / D}  ER = e  D
Substituting in the previous equation
MB  (r  D)  (e  D)  (c  D)  (r  e  c)  D
Divide both sides by the term in parentheses
1
D  MB
r ec
M  D  C and C  c  D
M  D  (c  D)  (1 c)  D
Substituting again
1 c
M  MB
r  ec
The money multiplier is then
1 c
m
r ec
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Intuition Behind the
Money Multiplier
r  required reserve ratio = 0.10
C  currency in circulation = $400B
D  checkable deposits = $800B
ER  excess reserves = $0.8B
M  money supply (M1) = C  D = $1,200B
$400B
c  0.5
$800B
$0.8B
e  0.001
$800B
1 0.5 1.5
m   2.5
0.1 0.001 0.5 0.601
This is less than the simple deposit multiplier
Although there is multiple expansion of deposits,
there is no such expansion for currency

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Application: The Great Depression Bank
Panics, 1930–1933, and the Money Supply

• Bank failures (and no deposit insurance)


determined:
– Increase in deposit outflows and holding of
currency (depositors)
– An increase in the amount of excess reserves
(banks)
• For a relatively constant MB, the money
supply decreased due to the fall of the
money multiplier.

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Figure 1 Deposits of Failed
Commercial Banks, 1929–1933

Source: Milton Friedman and Anna Jacobson Schwartz, A Monetary History of the United States,
1867–1960 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 309.

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Figure 2 Excess Reserves Ratio
and Currency Ratio, 1929–1933

Sources: Federal Reserve Bulletin; Milton Friedman and Anna Jacobson Schwartz, A Monetary
History of the United States, 1867–1960 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963), p.
333.

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Figure 3 M1 and the Monetary
Base, 1929–1933

Source: Milton Friedman and Anna Jacobson Schwartz, A Monetary History of the United
States, 1867–1960 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 333.

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APPLICATION The 2007-2009
Financial Crisis and the Money Supply

• During the recent financial crisis, as shown in


Figure 4, the monetary base more than tripled as a
result of the Fed's purchase of assets and new
lending facilities to stem the financial crisis

• Figure 5 shows the currency ratio c and the excess


reserves ratio e for the 2007-2009 period. We see
that the currency ratio fell somewhat during this
period, which our money supply model suggests
would raise the money multiplier and the money
supply because it would increase the overall level of
deposit expansion. However, the effects of the
decline in c were entirely offset by the
extraordinary rise in the excess reserves ratio e

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Figure 4 M1 and the Monetary Base,
2007-2009

Source: Federal Reserve; www.federalreserve.gov/releases.

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Figure 5 Excess Reserves Ratio and
Currency Ratio, 2007-2009

Source: Federal Reserve; www.federalreserve.gov/releases.

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