Advanced Power Systems

ECE 0909.402-02, 0909.504-02

Lecture 3: Electric Power Fundamentals
5 February 2007
Dr. Peter Mark Jansson PP PE
Associate Professor – Electrical and Computer Engineering
 Aims of Today’s Lecture
• Course Training Tours (Mon 3-8PM, Fri 12-5PM)
• Part One: Overview of Chapter 2 concepts
• A summary of…ch. 2 concepts
• Power Factor Correction
• Three Phase Systems
• Power Supplies and Power Quality
• Part Two: Overview …ch. 3 concepts
• Early developments
• Electric industry today (NUGS, IPPs, QFs)
• Polyphase synchronous generators
Aims of Today’s Lecture (con’t)
• 15 minute stretch break at 6
• Part Two: An intro to …ch. 3 concepts
• Heat engines, steam cycles and efficiencies
• GTs, CCs, Baseload Plants and LDCs
• T&D
• Regulatory impacts (PUHCA, PURPA, FERC)
 Power factor correction?

Why correct power factor?

1/5th of all grid losses may be due to poor power factor
(>$2B/yr), the outage of 2003 was made more severe by
extremely high reactive demand, all transformers are
rated on kVA not watts, all these economic, efficiency and
reliability benefits can be achieved at a very low cost …
 Power factor correction

Adding capacitive impedance in parallel with the load enables the

current to oscillate between the inductors and capacitors rather
than being drawn from the utility system or the customer
transformer.
Capacitors are rated by volt-amps-reactive VARs that they
supply at the system voltage in which they are installed, and PF
correction is a straightforward engineering design
 Last Week’s pf correction example
• An industrial customer’s service entrance substation is rated
at 1MVA (1,000kVA) and is at 95% capacity. The plant now
experiences a power factor of 80%. A new manufacturing
line is planned that will increase power demand 125kW. How
many kVAR of capacitance should be added to avoid
purchasing additional substation transformer capacity?
• Real power (at present) = (0.8)(0.95)(1,000kVA) = 760kW
• Phase angle = cos-1(0.8) = 36.87o
• Apparent power = (1,000)(0.95) = 9,500 Volt-Amps
• If demand grows from 760kW to 885kW Apparent Power will
grow to Real/PF = 885/(0.8) = 1106kVA > 1MVA capacity
• Reactive Power = Q = VI sin = 1106(0.6) = 664kVAR
 PF correction example (con’t)
• An industrial customer’s service entrance substation is rated at 1MVA (1,000kVA) and
is at 95% capacity. The plant now experiences a power factor of 80%. A new
manufacturing line is planned that will increase power demand 125kW. How many
kVAR of capacitance should be added to avoid purchasing additional substation
transformer capacity?
• For substation to handle the growth, power factor must
improve to at least PF = 885kW/1,000kVA = 0.885
• Phase angle now will be = cos-1(0.885) = 27.75o
• Reactive Power (Q) = VI sin = 1000(0.4656) = 466
kVAR
• Difference in reactive power must be supplied by the
capacitor bank: 664 – 466 = 198 kVAR
• Specify a >= 200 kVAR cap bank at industrial
customer’s service voltage
 What is a 200 kVAR cap bank?
• Rating Capacitor Banks in terms of KVAR
is quite common in power systems,
however, there are times when the actual
value of the capacitance is needed:
• Voltage/Current in Capacitor: V=(1/C)I
• Current & Power in Capacitor is all reactive:
VAR = VI = V(CV) = CV2
• C (farads) = VARs/(V2)
 What is a 200 kVAR cap bank?
• C (farads) = VARs/(V2)
• We need therefore to know what voltage the
capacitance will be provided at, in our case 480V

VARs 200kVARs
C farads  
V 2
2  60  (480) 2

2  10 VARs
5
3
  2.3  10 F  2.3mF
86.86 10 6
 LM #1
• In an industrial facility (1, 240V) with a
10-kVA transformer, the real power of a
motor is 4.2kW (pf=0.6). A second motor,
similar to the above needs to be added.
• Show transformer loads
• Determine kVAR and pf required to meet
request
• How much capacitance is this (farads)?
 3-phase systems
• Typically, 3-phase systems are connected in
one of four ways: (Supply – Load)
• Wye – Wye
• Wye – Delta
• Delta – Wye
• Delta – Delta
• What are these?
Wye (Y) connections
 What is meant by Phase & Line
Voltages?
• In a 3-phase Wye-connected system which
is quite common (all the negative legs of
generators or transformers are tied to
ground) the following is true:
• Voltages measured with respect to the neutral
wire are called phase voltages V (Va, Vb, Vc)
• Voltages measured between phases are called
line voltages VL or VLL (Vab, Vbc, Vac )
• In power systems we typically use Line Voltage
 Power in 3 Systems
• In 3-phase (3) systems to determine power -
including Apparent (VA), Reactive (VAR), and
Real (Watts) - we need to understand these
relationships:
Vline
S3  3V phase I line 3  I line  3Vline I line
3
Q3  3Vline I line sin  _(VAR )
P3  3Vline I line cos _( watts)
 Power in 3 Systems
• Most widely used service to buildings is a
4-wire , 3, 208 V service.
• To determine line voltage of each phase
alone we need to understand this
relationship: VLine = 3 Vphase=
• Therefore: Vphase= = VLine/ 3 = 208V/ 3 =
120V
 Power in 3 Systems
• Many buildings also use a 4-wire , 3, 480V
service.
• To determine line voltage of each phase
alone we use the same relationship:
• VLine = 3 Vphase=
• Therefore: Vphase= = VLine/ 3
• = 480V/ 3 = 277V
See Figure 2.15 on page 74 of our Renewable and Efficient EPS text
 LM #2: 3 Power Distribution
• The Atlantic City Electric Power System
distributes electricity from its substations to
its customers at a 3-phase line voltage
nominally 12-kV.
• What is its Phase Voltage?
Delta ()
 Y and  current, voltage &
power
• Y-connected
• IL = I
• VLL = 3 V Apparent Power3 = 3 VLL IL
• Real Power3 = 3 VLL ILcos 
 -connected
• VLL = V
• IL = 3 I Apparent Power3 = 3 VLL IL
• Real Power3 = 3 VLL ILcos 
 Example
• In an industrial facility (3, 208V-Y) the
real power used is 80kW with single phase
motors and a poor power factor is the result
(0.5) leading to 5% power losses (4kW).
With capacitors and 3 motors the power
factor is increased to 0.9 what losses are
there now?
 Solution
P3  80kW  3VL I L cos  S3 cos
80
S3 cos  S3  0.5  80kW  S3   160kVA
0.5
S3 160kVA
IL    0.444kA  444 A
3  VL 3  208V
80
After _ pf  0.9  S3   88.9kVA
0.9
S3 88.9kVA
IL    0.247kA  247 A
3  VL 3  208V
 Final Solution
• Current losses are 4kW (5%)
• Losses (I2R), R is constant
• Losses after correction
2
(247)
PL  4kW  2
 1.24kW
(444)
1.24
Loss %   1.55%
80
 LM #3
• In an industrial facility (3, 208V-Y) the
real power used is 250kW and a poor power
factor exists (pf = 0.6).
• What is the phase current? I
• What is the line current? IL
• What phase voltage? V
• How much current is saved if pf is unity?
 Power supplies
• Devices that convert ac power to dc power
for electronic applications
• What devices use power supplies: tvs, pcs,
copiers, portable phones, motor controls,
thermostats – just about everything with an
IC or digital display or any electronic control
• 6% of US electricity flows through PS
 Linear and switching
• Linear PS: use transformers to drop voltage and
then rectifier and filter, 50-60% efficient in
conversion
• Switching PS: use rapid transistorized switches to
effectively reduce available power and use a dc-dc
converter to adjust dc output voltage to desired
levels, 70-80% efficient in conversion
• Typical US household has ~20 devices using PS
which consume between 5-8% of electricity and
account for over $4B each year (500 kWh/home)
 Power supplies
• Described in text (pp.77-86) and introduced
in this course because they can have a
significant impact on power quality as well
as very sensitive to poor power quality
• Also circuits similar to the buck converter
can both raise and lower dc voltages to
enhance performance of photovoltaic arrays
we will design later in the course
 Power quality & THD
• Current and voltage waveform irregularities
• Under-,over-voltage and current
• Sag, swell of V and I
• Surges, spikes and impulses
• Electrical noise
• Harmonic distortion
• Outages
 Power quality and interruptions
• Few cycles or momentary sags can cause
major disruption for automated
manufacturing equipment:
• PLCs
• ASDs
• Digital economy businesses can be even
more disrupted by poor power quality
 Sources of eroding quality
• Utility (line side):
• Under-,over-voltage and current
• Sag, swell of V and I
• Surges, spikes and impulses
• Outages
• Customer (load side):
• Waveform noise (poor grounding)
• Harmonic distortion
 Solutions to eroding quality
• Utility (line side):
• filters
• capacitors and inductors
• high energy surge arrestors
• fault current limiters
• dynamic voltage restorers
• Customer (load side):
• UPS, voltage regulators, surge suppressors, filters and
various other line conditioning equipment
 Overview of harmonics
• Any periodic function can be represented by a Fourier series
made up of an infinite sum of sines and cosines with
frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental (60Hz)
frequency
• Frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental are called
harmonics (ie, 5th harmonic is 300 Hz)
• Harmonic distortion does not occur from loads using the
basic components of R, L & C
• Electronic loads (power supplies, electronic ballasts,
adjustable speed drives, etc.) distort
• Periodic functions that are sine or cosine only have no even
harmonics (called halfwave symmetry – half and full wave
rectifiers will exhibit only odd harmonics)
 CFLs and THD
• 60-watt Incandescent Light
• V and I in phase
• No THD
• 18-watt Compact Fluorescent Light
• Phase shift (inductive load)
• Significant wave notching
• Numerous harmonics
Total harmonic distortion

I  I  I 
2 2 2
THD  2 3 4

I1
 Sample problem LM#4
• Calculate the THD for the following CFL:
• Harmonic rms Current (A)
• 1 0.18
• 3 0.14
• 5 0.09
• 7 0.05
• 9 0.03
 New homework

• HW 3 – due next Monday

• will be posted on web
• 2.9, 2.12, 2.13, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.6, 3.7,
3.9, 3.10, 3.11
 Chapter 3 concepts and content
• Part Two: An intro to …ch. 3 concepts
• Early developments
• T&D
• Polyphase synchronous generators
• Heat engines, steam cycles and efficiencies
• GTs, CCs, Baseload Plants and LDCs
• Electric industry today (NUGS, IPPs, QFs)
• Regulatory impacts (PUHCA, PURPA, FERC)
 Electricity History
• Early Development (1796 – 1838)
• First Chemical Battery – Volta 1796
• Electric Arc Lamp – Davy / Moyes 1801
• Early Transformer – Schweigger 1811
• First Electromagnet – Sturgeon 1825
• First E-M Induction Generator – DC – Faraday
1831
• Thin Rod Carbon Lamp Filament – Jobart 1838
 History – 2
• The First 100 Years (1840 - 1940)
• Six-pole reliable commercial generator – 1840
• Subdivided iron core transformer – 1850
• First self-excited dynamo patented – 1855
• Iron wire replaced by copper for distribution –
1877
• First DC electric power system Pearl Street – 1879
• First AC generation/transf./transm. Design – 1888
• Rotary Converters – 1893
 History – 3
• The First 100 Years (1840 - 1940)
continued
• 2-3 phase transformers – 1894
• OCBs invented – 1897
• First load dispatcher’s office (NYC) – 1903
• First AC transmission 60kV – 200 miles – 1905
• High voltage suspension insulator – 1906
• First automatic electrical substation – 1914
• First flourescent / neon tube lighting 1934
 History – 4
• U.S. Shift from DC to AC
• 1890: 90% DC
• 1897: 62% DC
• 1902: 39% DC
• 1907: 28% DC
• 1942: 1% DC
 Transmission Lines
• Purpose: to connect power generation to loads
• Design Types:
• Bulk transmission: large quantities of power to
distribution substations (Hi voltage - >= 34.5 kV)
• Radial transmission: often called distribution
lines to deliver power to customer loads (Lo
voltage <= 23kV)
• Rule of Thumb: Power delivered  V2
 Fundamentals
• Transmission / Distribution Lines
• ROLE: Minimize i2R losses in system
• Transmission: 69, 138, 230, 500, 765 kV

• Distribution: 4 - 34.5 kV (12-13.8 kV

common)
 Types of Transmission
Construction
• Overhead: most common in rural and semi-rural
utility systems, least expensive, easiest to
maintain, most used for bulk power transmission
• Underground: most common in center-city,
urban and planned development systems, subject
to higher failures and larger per unit cost length,
capacitance problems over long lengths
Typical Construction – O/H
 Typical Construction – O/H
• Towers / Poles – to increase phase to ground
distance and limit exposure to the public
• Cross arms – separate phases from each other
and from ground potential (pole is 90%
ground)
• Insulators – to separate phase voltage from
ground potential and maximize electrostatic
creep length
• Ground/Static Wire - for lightning protection
 Typical Construction – O/H
• Conductors – typically ACSR (aluminum
conductor steel reinforced) one or more per
phase with appropriate diameter to carry
current and load at given voltage and
strength to handle spans between towers
and associated dead and live loads
 Clearances
• Nominal line voltage - Maximum voltage,
• Basic distance, Safe distance
• 50 kV - 72,5 kV 0,70 m 1,70 m
• 110 kV - 123 kV 1,20 m 2,20 m
• 150 kV - 170 kV 1,60 m 2,60 m
• 220 kV - 245 kV 2,60 m 3,60 m
• 380 kV - 420 kV 3,60 m 4,60 m
• SAFE DISTANCE: divide max. voltage by 100 add 1
 Underground cables
• Application: underground, underwater
• Trench Installation or Duct Bank
• Direct Buried or Cable Tray
• External sheath or ground wrap
• Riser Poles/Terminations
• Manholes for Duct Bank Installations\
Distribution Cables
Cross sections
 UD Cable Cross sections
• 25kV primary: phase conductor
is concentrically stranded (Cu or
Al) a semi-cond. polyethylene
shield, polyethylene primary
insulation (white), another shield,
and concentric neutral (Cu or Al)
wrapped around outer shield.

• Jacketed Cable (shown below)

includes an additional insulated
polyethylene jacket over neutral
 UD Shielded Cable
• Shielded cable: Uses
a copper longitudinal
corrugated tape shield
in place of the
concentric neutral
strands
 3-phase transmission cable
• 5-46 kV cable: for use in aerial, direct
burial, duct bank, open tray, or
underwater applications
 Transmission line models
• Series resistance and inductance per unit
length
• Shunt capacitance per unit length

• These values control the power-carrying

capacity of the transmission line and the
voltage drop at full load
 Heat engines, steam cycles and
efficiencies
High Temperature Sink
TH
QH

Heat Engine Work

QC
Low Temperature Sink
TC
Heat Engine Efficiency after Sadi Carnot

NOTE: T in oK or oR
 LM #5
• If a solar pond is able to trap heat beneath is
saline cover at temperature 120o C above its
ambient environment, what is its maximum
Carnot efficiency if the outdoor temperature
is 15o C?
 entropy
• A measure of the amount of energy unavailable
for work in a natural process

Q
S 
T
 Sample Heat Engine Problem
• A 45% efficient heat engine operates
between 2 reservoirs (750oC and 50oC) and
withdraws 107 J/sec
• What is rate of entropy lost in high temperature
reservoir and entropy gained at low temp
reservoir ?
• Express engine’s work in Watts?
• What is total entropy gain of system?
 Heat Engine Solution
• A 45% efficient heat engine operates between 2 reservoirs
(750oC and 50oC) and withdraws 107 J/sec
• What is rate of entropy lost in high temperature reservoir?
• Sloss = Q/T = 107/1023oK = 9775 J/s-oK
• and entropy gained at low temp reservoir ?
• Sgain = Q/T = 107x55%/323oK = 17,028 J/s-oK
• Express engine’s work in Watts?
• Work = 107x45% = 4.5 x 106 J/s = 4.500kW = 4.5 MW

• What is total entropy gain of system?

 S = Sgain (17,028 J/s-oK) - Sloss (9775 J/s-oK) = 7253 J/s-oK

 NOTE:
• The fact that there was a net increase in
entropy tells us that the engine has not
violated the Carnot efficiency limit (which
for this device would have been what?)
Write Your Answer as LM#6
 Heat Engines
• Historic devices that convert heat energy
into mechanical energy
• Steam Engine
• Savery 1698 (<1% efficient)
• Newcomen 1705 (~1% efficient)
• Watt 1770 (separate condenser ~2% efficient)
• Steam Turbine (Parsons 1880 ~10% efficient)
 Heat Engine Efficiencies
• Modern Steam Turbines (~30% efficient)
• Gasoline Engines (max. 20% efficient)
• Diesel engine (max. 30% efficient)
• Gas Turbines (20-30% efficient)
• Heat Pumps (C.O.P. of 2-12)
• Cogeneration Systems (>70% efficient)
Sample Heat Engine Problem – LM #7

• A 65% cogeneration system operates

between 2 reservoirs (750oC and 20oC) and
withdraws 3 x 106 J/sec
• What is rate of entropy lost in high temperature
reservoir?
• Express engine’s work in Watts?
 Polyphase synchronous
generators
• How did we arrive at the 3 phase standard
for generators?
• What does synchronous mean anyway?
• First another look back….

• BEGIN HERE
 History - EM Induction
Generators
• 1831 Michael Faraday’s Electromagnetic
Induction Experiment switch
Soft iron ring

battery
N
First Evolution: DC Generator

Faraday 1831
Second Evolution: AC Generator

Pixii 1832
AC Generator Output
 Lenz’ Law
• When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux
according to Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced
emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field
opposes the change which produces it. The induced
magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep
the magnetic flux in the loop constant. In the examples
below, if the B field is increasing, the induced field acts in
opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the induced field acts in
the direction of the applied field to try to keep it constant.
Lenz’ Law
 synchronous
• A fixed-speed machine (generator or motor)
that is synchronized with the utility grid to
which it is connected…
• To generate 60Hz a two pole generator
would need to rotate at 3600 rpm in order to
provide synchronous output
 Multi-pole machines
• Two pole machines have 1 N and 1 S pole on their
rotor and their stator
• Four pole machines have 4 poles (2 N and 2 S) on
both rotor and stator
1revolution fcycles 60 s
Ns   
( p / 2)cycles s min
120 f
Ns 
p
Synchronous machines – LM#8a
• How fast would a generator that is
synchronized with the utility grid in France
need to rotate to…
• Generate 50Hz if it had four (4) poles?
Finally… the 3- Wye synchronous generator

• For balanced power input and output

• Input from the steam turbine
• Output to the electric grid/loads
• What will be the rotation speed of this most
common generator in the US?
Write Your Answer as LM#8 b
 GTs, CCs, Baseload Plants
• To overcome Lenz’s Law all of these
generators require motive horsepower
• Gas Turbines
• Steam Turbines
• Hydro Turbines
Steam Electric Power Plant
Other power plant schematics
 LDCs
• What is a Load Duration Curve?
• Every load hour of the year (8760 hours of
system load data) arranged from the highest
demand to the lowest demand
• A key design tool in determining how to
match generation mix with load profiles of
the utility company
 US Industry structure - utilities
• Traditionally given a monopoly franchise
• In exchange, subject to regulation
• State and Federal
• Most are distribution only
• Many remain vertically integrated (G, T &D)
• 3200 US electric utilities
• Four types
 US Industry structure - utilities
• Investor Owned (IOU)
• 5%, generate > 2/3 of power
• Federally Owned
• TVA, BPA, US Army Corps, sell power non-
profit
• Other Publicly Owned
• Munis, state, 2/3 of this type, <9%
• Coops – originally set up by REA
 US Industry structure –
nonutilities
• Nonutility Generators (NUGs)
• Prior to 1940 ~ 20% of power
• By mid-1970s a small fraction
• Late 1980s-1990s as regulators changed rules
• Some utilities had to sell off their assets
• Growth of NUGS in some states was significant
• By 2001 NUGs were delivering over 25%
 Regulatory impacts (PUHCA, PURPA,
EPAct, FERC Orders 888 & 2000)
Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935
1929 16 holding companies controlled 80% of US utilities
Financial abuses in many large companies
Stock Market Crash left many in bankruptcy
PUHCA provided regulation and break-up of large HCs
Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978
1973 oil crisis led to large rise in utility retail rates
PURPA set up to encourage energy efficiency and renewable
energy technologies
 Regulatory impacts (PUHCA, PURPA,
EPAct, FERC Orders 888 & 2000)
Energy Policy Act of 1992
Created new entity EWG
EPAct set up to begin opening up the grid to allow
competitive generators to compete for customers hopefully to
drive down costs and prices
FERC Orders 888 & 2000
888 Requires IOUs to publish nondiscriminatory traiffs that
can be applied to all generators/competitors
2000 Calls for the creation of regional transmission
organizations RTOS to control transmission system operation
 Industry today (NUGS, IPPs,
QFs)
• NUG – non-utility generator

• IPP – non-PURPA-regulated NUGs

• QF – meet PURPA requirements for

efficiency or renewable energy use
 New homework

• HW 3 – due next Monday

• will be posted on web
• 2.9, 2.12, 2.13, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.6, 3.7,
3.9, 3.10, 3.11