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In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are the
triangular-shaped endocrine glands that sit on top of the kidneys. They
synthesize and release hormones related to stress such as cortisol and
catecholamines.
ADRENAL GLANDS
EMBRYOLOGY:
ZONA GLOMERULOSA
GLOMERULOSA
ZONA FASCICULATA
FASCICULATA
ZONA RETICULARIS
RETICULARIS
ADRENAL CORTEX
MIT
SER
+
SER
MIT
Synthesis of aldosterone
HYPOTHALAMO - PITUITARY SYSTEM
Nc. supraopticus
Primary capilary
plexus
Chiasma
opticum
Neural lobe
Portal vein
Adenopituitary
Anterior lobe
Secretory
cells
Oxytocin
Vasopresin
ACTH, GH,
TSH, LH, FSH, Prolactin
REGULATION OF CORTISOL SYNTHESIS AND
SECRETION OF
ALBUMIN – 6 %
metabolism of protein
proteolysis in fat tissue and skeletal muscle provide amino acids for gluconeogenesis
metabolism of lipids
reduces lipogenesis in the liver, stimulates lipolysis, (FFA)
permissive effects on the action of adrenaline via Zn-α2-glycoprotein
Immune system
cortisol inhibits T1-helper cells and activates T2-helper cells, i.e. the action is
antiinflammatory
CNS
through type I a II receptors in limbic system affect memory, mood, emotions
DEFECTS IN CORTISOL SECRETION
ALDOSTERONE:
its production and secretion is 100-1000 times less than that of cortisol.
Stimulation: ACTH, angiotensin II and K+ (depolarization of plasma membrane, Ca ++
entry into the cell, activation of aldosterone synthase)
MECHANISM OF ALDOSTERONE SYNTHESIS AND
SECRETION - RAS route
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS OF
ALDOSTERONE REGULATION
TRANSPORT AND DISTRIBUTION OF
ALDOSTERONE
CBG - 17 %
ALBUMIN - 47%
Receptor for aldosterone binds also cortisol with comparable affinity. But, tissues
sensitive to aldosterone express
11-beta- hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase
These cells are the body's main source of the circulating adrenaline (epinephrine) –
85%, they produce noradrenaline (norepinephrine), and dopamine, plus some
peptides, neurotensin, neuropeptid-Y, vasopresin, oxytocin, somatostatin,
met-enkefalin.
receptors – signals are received via cholionergic – nicotine type receptors, (a few
opioid receptors)
SCHEME OF THE SNS
EFFECTS OF CATECHOLAMINES
receptors: adrenergic α1, α2; β1, β2; are localized in all parts of cardiovascular system
and play a role in blood pressure regulation
hemodynamic effects
arterioral contraction - α1, α2 (IP3 mechanism)
arterioral dilation - β2 (cAMP mechanism)
Others
bronchiole dilation - β2, lowering of GIT motility - β1
bronchiole constriction (α) and relaxation (β) of myometrium
metabolic effects
Hans Selye
graduate from German Medical Faculty Charles University in Prague
stressor - stimulus
stress - complex response of the organism to a stressor
STRESS CONCEPT
Selye introduced stress into medical and scientific literature. The starting point
for the elaboration of his stress theory was his report, published
letter to Nature in 1936
Cannon was the first to introduce the term "homeostasis" to describe the
coordinated physiological processes which maintain most of the steady
states in the organism. He turned his attention to the sympathetic nervous
system as an essential homeostatic system that serves to restore stress-
induced disturbed homeostasis and to promote survival of the organism.
Cannon was the first to touch the issue of specificity of stress responses
since he showed, for example, that the homeostatic reaction to lack of
oxygen is quite different from that with which the body responds to exposure
to cold. However, Cannon never used the term "stress."
Cannon (1929)
- streotypical response to any demand does not provide the possibility of
the adaptation reactions, therefore it could not have developed during the
evolution
STRESS DEFINITION
Many current views exist concerning what stress means and how to define and
approach it.
Stimuli from the external environment acts via senses, stimuli from the
internal environment act via interoceptors
Stimuli are transmitted into the CNS by nerve or humoral route (toxins).
The signal is further directed to:
cortex (alertness, exploration),
autonomous nerve system (noradrenergic neurons in locus coeruleus,
nerve endings in various organs, activation of adrenal medulla),
somatomotor system (flight , fight)
neuroendocrine system (activation of ACTH, cortisol, growth hormone
via hypothalamus, in posterior pituitary vasopressin)
The main role of the endocrine system during stress is mobilization of
nutrients for brain, heart, and preservation of water in the organism.
TYPICAL ENDOCRINE RESPONSES TO SELECTED
ACUTE STRESSORS IN HUMANS
GH ng mL-1
lactate mmol L-1
GH ng ml-1
COTR ng ml-1
GH ng mL-1
behavioral
resposes
hippocampus
NA, 5-HT CRH, DA
GABA
amygdala CRH
locus. coeruleus
hypothalamus Nucl tractus. sol.
CRH / AVP
cortisol sympathetic
pituitary ganglion
ACTH
NA
A
adrenals
cardiovascular tone
Insulin rezistance
cortisol (hyperglycemia)
adiposity
immunosuppression
METABOLIC DISORDERS AS CONCEQUENCE OF
CHRONIC STRESS (metabolic syndrome)
CORTISOL –
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUPPRESSOR OF IMMUNE FUNCTIONS
ADRENALINE, NORADRENALINE -
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUPPRESSOR OF IMMUNE FUNCTIONS
STRESS