Qualitative research-10-

tools, fieldwork plan, quality and ethics

Dr Ehsanullah Tarin
MBBS MCPS MAHMPP PhD FFPH
 Outline

• Research question
• Qualitative data collection tools
• Fieldwork
• Quality and ethics

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 Qualitative research question
• Research questions are the questions that researcher
proposes to answer through data collection.
– That is, after data collection and data analysis, the researcher
should be able to answer research questions.
• In designing a research question, researcher deliberates
on a research topic, called research problem.
• The research topic are derived from sources like:
– scientific publications, research projects, observation in
everyday life, issues or problems in present-day society as
presented in newspapers, or issues directly raised by policy-
makers, a community or private companies.

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 Qualitative research question
• While formulating research question, the aim and
objectives of research are simultaneously defined.
• Qualitative research question focuses on:
– exploring processes behind behaviour to understand
the behaviour; and
– seeking to get an insight into perceptions, opinions,
beliefs and feelings.
• Researcher new to qualitative research is likely to
formulate questions that are quantitative in nature
and cannot be answered by qualitative research.
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 Research process

Credibility and quality

Problem
Aims and
identification
Objectives

Fieldwork
Research Data

protocols
Research
question analysis &
reporting

Literature
review Conceptual
framework
Research ethics

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 Qualities of a research question
• Qualitative research questions need to meet a
number of criteria/requirements:
– clear and unambiguous, focused but not too narrow;
– researchable through data collection: not too abstract or
which require application of philosophy rather than of data;
– informed by and connected to existing research or theory,
and having potential of making an original contribution to
or to fill a gap in the existing body of knowledge;
– relevant and useful to policy, practice or development of a
social theory; and
– feasible, given the resources available; and at least some
interest to the researcher.
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 Qualitative study tools
• Qualitative enquiry does not involve a priori or pre-
structured data collection tools;
• Yet, e.g. in exploratory study, there could be a number of
broad questions, encouraging participants to respond
and shape their narrative;
• In-so-far as level of pre-structuring, there are two types:
– Unstructured, un-standardized – interviewer has a broad
agenda that maps issues to be explored; but much of the
information is collected by probing and follow up questions;
– Semi-structured or semi-standardized – interviewer asks
same question each time from interviewees, and probes and
poses follow up questions for seeking more information;

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 Contents of qualitative study tools
1. B
ƒ ackground/demographics -standard background and
demographic questions, like age, sex, education, etc.
2. ƒKnowledge – the facts about the topic or issue.
3. ƒSensory - what people saw, touched, heard, tasted or smelled.
4. Behaviors - what a person has done or is doing or is expected
to do in a particular situation.
5. Opinions/values - what a person thinks about a topic or issue.
6. Fƒ eelings -what a person feels rather than what a person thinks
about a topic or issue.

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Thinking v/s feeling

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 Ordering contents of tool
• How topics are covered in qualitative inquiry will vary
in interviews, FGDs, observations, yet questions
should be ordered logically and may follow as below:
– Start with introduction to the topic, purpose and
background information;
– ƒBefore controversial matters, seek facts.
– ƒIntersperse fact-based questions throughout inquiry.
– ƒLook for present before inquiring about past or future.
– ƒIn the end, seek information participants prefer to add and
their impressions and feedback on the inquiry.

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 Phrasing the tools
• Phrasing of questions will depend on the
characteristics of the interviewees and how
they will understand the questions.
– If an interviewee asks interviewer ‘What do you
mean?’ it is a signal that question was not well
designed or appropriate for study population.
• A question should be immediately clear to the
interviewee; that is, it will be better to phrase
questions in colloquial language or using local
phrases that will be easily understood.
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 Exercise

• Groups will work to:

– Define a research question
– Design a interview guide for collecting data
regarding research question;
– Design a FGD guide for collecting data regarding
research question;

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 Fieldwork concepts
1. Key informants
2. Social situation
3. Gaining access
4. Becoming accepted
5. Length of fieldwork
6. Equipment
7. Field notes

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 Fieldwork: participants’ recruitment
• Define sampling strategy and list:
– participants for interview/focus group discussion
or both as the case maybe;
– documents along with their location and
(gatekeepers) means of accessing those; and
– meetings, events, locations etc. for observation.
• Obtain consent (from relevant /competent
authority) to access research participants,
documents, meetings, events, etc.;

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 Fieldwork - logistics

• Organise logistics
– Secure venue for data storage and processing;
– Define transportation strategy and accordingly
organise transport;
– Obtain the needed materials and equipment;
– Arrange adequate funds for fieldwork expenses;
– Reserve accommodation in case out of city travel
is required.

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 Pilot-testing
• During pilot-testing assess the following:
– Logistics and other arrangements for fieldwork
– Data collection tools (e.g. interview guide)
• Did interviewees understand questions immediately?
• Were concepts, sentences and words adapted to the context
of the interviewee?
• Do some questions need to be rephrased?
• Was the order of the questions logical for the interviewee?
• Can the research question be answered with the information
that is gathered?
• Was the interview guide too long/too short?
• After pilot-testing the tools and arrangements are
usually revised.
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 Fieldwork – data collection

• Decide on a strategy for data recording/note

taking, transcribing, processing and analysing
qualitative data; and in this regard, NOTE:
Researcher should make minimum use of assistant
/another hand at any stage of qualitative enquiry.
• Make log book ready; and define /document
research protocols to act as a fieldwork guide.

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 Conduct fieldwork

• Train the note taker and observers;

• Schedule and communicate (letters, telephone,
emails etc.) with research participants;
• Conduct fieldwork, as research design requires:
– Interviews
– Focus group discussions
– Document review
– Observation of meetings/events/locations etc.

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 Log Book: recording field notes
• Log Book
– “This is a notebook kept in order to record notes
arising from interviews, observations, extracts from
documents etc.
– This notebook can also be used to capture ideas,
questions that arise and information collected
during field visits”.
• How to organise log book
– Page-1:Title
– Page-2:Schedule
– Page-3:Name and addresses of contact persons
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 Log Book: recording field notes
• How to Record?
– Separate page for each visit/interview/document
– Date and place/venue
– Persons/document/event
– Notes arising from interview, observations and
perusal of record
– Observations and personal insights recorded in
parenthesis
– Better type onto computer every evening
– After 2-3 days’ work start drawing conclusions and
making recommendations - virtually
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 Data management

• Record data from field as notes or on a tape

recorder;
• Transcribe data as soon as possible – better
the same evening;
• Read transcripts and fill in missing data by
recall or follow up visit/interviews;
• Recheck/ validate data from participants.

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 Exercise

• Define main steps of data collection/fieldwork

for your research questions; and develop plan
(Gantt chart) depicting activities v/s time.

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 What makes research rigorous?
1. Representativeness
– situation being studied is typical and therefore can
be generalized to other similar situations
2. Validity
– data collected gives true picture of what is being
studied?
3. Reliability
– method used if applied by another person under
same conditions will give same results.
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 Validity: key to qualitative research
Validity means data collected gives true picture of what is
being studied? It is assured through :
1. Triangulation
– Data – same information from different sources
– Methods - same information is obtained by using different
methods, i.e. interviews, observation, documents’ review
2. Peer review
– Disinterested party reviews the methods and analysis
3. External audit
– Disinterested party looks at the process and product
4. Respondent checking/validation
– Ask respondents to review the data and analysis
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 Reliability in qualitative research
• Three tests of reliability in qualitative work:
– Stability is established when asking identical
questions from an informant at different times
produce consistent answers/responses.
– Consistency refers to the integrity of issues within
a single interview, so that a respondent’s answers
on a given topic remain on the same pattern.
– Equivalence is tested by use of alternative forms of
a question with same meaning in an interview, or
concurrent observation by two researchers.

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 Ethical Principles
• All researchers are responsible for ensuring
that participants:
1. are well informed about the purpose of research
they are being asked to participate in;
2. understand risks they may face as a result of
being part of research;
3. understand benefits that might accrue to them
as a result of participating;
4. feel free to make an independent decision (of
joining or leaving) without fear of negative
consequences.
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 Ethical practices: informed consent
• It is obligatory and universal principle to inform
people that they are part of a research project,
no matter what the methods are!
• Always be honest about who you are, what
your research is about, why you want to talk,
and what you will do with information.
• Depending on methods, written informed
consent may not always be necessary and may,
in fact, negatively impact quality of research.
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 Ethical practices: confidentiality
• Establish procedures to reduce risk and maximize confidentiality:
– Ensure field notes and transcripts do not contain personal
identifiers.
– Keep raw and processed data locked and/ or password
protected in case in computer.
– Share data only with those who are part of study team and
who have received training in research ethics.
– Establish clear chain of custody procedures to ensure data is
not diverted or lost.
– If you are supervising a team to collect data, conduct
thorough training of EVERYONE in ethics.
– Conduct regular audits of yourself and your team to ensure
compliance to ethical principles.
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 Ethical practices: protection

• Dissemination of qualitative research results is

important. But, ..

“Make every effort to report results in a way that

protects participants’ confidentiality and disallows
retribution of any type”.

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 Ethics in research: in nutshell
• Get consent of participants.
• Preserve human dignity.
• Don’t put participants at risk.
• Be transparent about what you are doing and
reporting.
• Give feedback to participants.

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 Issues in qualitative research
• Strength of qualitative research methods lies
in the informality of the communication as
well as iterative nature of research process.
• Protection of participants through informed
consent requires formalized interaction
between researcher and participant.
• How can the researcher reconcile these two
conflicting dynamics?

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