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An Introduction to Cultural-

Anthropology

Dr. Ray S. Naguit


Professor 6
 Sociology is the study of human social
relationship with special emphasis upon
groups and institutions.

socious…. to associates
Anthropology
 the study of humankind- of ancient and modern
people and their ways of living (Harris and Johnson,
2001).
 analysis of humans and their society, descriptively,
culturally, historically, and physically.
 as the study of human nature, human society, and
the human past
 science of the origin and evolution of human beings,
of the formation of human races, and of the normal
variations in the physical structures of human beings
 . F. Engels defined anthropology as the
science covering “... the transition from
the morphology and physiology of
humanity and of races of humanity to
history” (Dialektika prirody,1969, p.
158).
Human morphology
 is subdivided into the disciplines:

a. Somatology studies the regularities of individual variability in the


human organism as a whole, sexual dimorphism in the structure
of the body, age-linked changes in the dimensions and
proportions of the body from the embryonic period until
advanced age, and the effects of various biological and social
conditions on the structure of the body and on the human
constitution; linked with medicine and is of essential importance
in establishing norms of physical development and tempos of
growth in gerontology and other fields
Merology studies variations in specific parts of the
human organism. Comparative anatomical research,
which is a division of merology, is devoted to
comparing each distinct organ and system of organs
of the human body with its counterparts in other
vertebrates, principally mammals and especially
primates. The ultimate aim of these investigations is
to clarify the genetic links between humans and other
beings and the place of humans in the animal world.
Paleoanthropology
 studies the bone remnants of fossilized
humans and of those animals closely
related to humans—the higher
primates.
Race studies
 the study of human races;
 the study of the racial composition of distinct ethna—tribes, peoples, and nations—and to
the origin of those communities;
 involves the classification of races, the history of the formation of races, and the factors
involved in the appearance of races—such as selective processes, isolation, mixing and
migration, climatic conditions, and the general geographical environment.;
 In the study of ethnogenesis, anthropological research is carried out jointly with linguistic,
historical, and archaeological research,
 In the study of the motive forces behind the origin of races, anthropology is closely linked
with genetics, physiology, zoogeography, climatology, and the general theory of
speciation.;
 Questions such as that of the original birthplace of present-day humans;
 sheds light on the use of anthropological materials as a historical source, on systematics
(and primarily small systematic units), on the cognition of the regularities of population
genetics, and on the refinement of certain questions of medical geography;
 are important in the scientific validation of the struggle against racism
Race Studies
 In the study of the motive forces behind the origin of races,
anthropology is closely linked with genetics, physiology,
zoogeography, climatology, and the general theory of
speciation.;
 Questions such as that of the original birthplace of present-day
humans;
 sheds light on the use of anthropological materials as a
historical source, on systematics (and primarily small systematic
units), on the cognition of the regularities of population
genetics, and on the refinement of certain questions of medical
geography;
 are important in the scientific validation of the struggle against
racism
Research Techniques
 Anthroposcopy- studies variations in the dimensions and shape
of the body by means of descriptions and measurements; and
the measuring method has become known as anthropometry;

 The role of statistical methods is crucial in the processing of


anthropometric data. Important special techniques of
anthropological research are craniology, osteology, odontology,
anthropological photography, taking of impressions of skin
surface patterns on the palms of the hands and soles of the
feet, taking plaster casts of face masks, and taking plaster casts
of the internal cavities of the skull (endocranial casts);
Techniques of hematological research are currently popular in
anthropology, as well as techniques of microanatomy,
biochemistry, roentgenology, tracing of family trees, prolonged
(long-term) and transverse (synchronous) studies of groups,
techniques for breaking up the mass of the body into fractions,
applications of radioactive isotopes, various photometric methods,
and others;

Race studies have benefited from the so-called geographical


method—that is, cartographic distributions of distinct racial criteria
and superposition of such charts on each other. This method,
combined with ethnographic and historical data, constitutes the
basis of race analysis.
Division of Anthropology
 Physical anthropology -human
evolution, including human
paleontology and the study of race
and of body build or constitution
(somatology). It uses the methods of
anthropometry genetics, physiology,
and ecology.
Cultural anthropology
 archaeology- studies the material remains of prehistoric and
extinct cultures

 Ethnography- the descriptive study of living cultures

 Ethnology- the recording of living cultures, and archaeology, to


analyze and compare the various cultures of humanity

 linguistics- the science of language.


Applied anthropology
is the practical application of
anthropological techniques to areas
such as industrial relations and
minority-group problems
Distinguishing Sociology from
Anthropology
SOCIOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY

Focuses on society and Focuses on culture and


social processes human development
Started with the study Started with the study
of western societies of ancient societies

Generally uses survey Generally uses


observation
 Sociology Anthropology

Man as social being is the center of study

man as zoon politikon (social animal)


Looks on human relationship or
group behavior

structures
functions (outcomes of an action)
patterns of behavior
causes
consequences
speculation scientific inquiry

Is the study of group behavior a science


or a social philosophy?

science - ethically neutral

social philosophy- norms or guideposts in


choosing values and making decisions
Common sense says… Scientific inquiry says…

one’s character is shown no direct association


in one’s face between facial features
and character

spare the rod and spoil the delinquents usually have


rod been punished more
(Horton and Hunt,1994) severely than most non
delinquents
Social determinism
Idea that social interactions cause or at
least influence people’s behavior.

Durkheim “social facts”


people’s behavior

patterns and regularities are predominant

Social predictions based on probability


 Auguste Comte (1798-1857)- coined
the word sociology; developed the first
complete approach o the scientific study
of society;Positive Philosophy (1855)
 Emile Durkheim (1858-1919)-father of
modern sociology; Rules of Sociological
Method (1895)
 Macro-Sociology—deals with broad
structure, organization, functions, social
processes in society

 Micro-Sociology—deals with how people


behave and interact in everyday setting
Required reading…

The Sociological Imagination, C.W.


Mills, 1959
The Social Research Project
 Nagbago ang kaugalian ng mga kabataan o ng mga
matatanda? An Exploration of Philippine Norms on Social
Exchange and Value System, Then and Now

 The Unconscious Drive: Children of Divided Houses

 Are children from one-parent homes more likely to become


delinquent than children from two-parent homes?
Research Methods
 Survey thru structured questionnaires
 Life histories
 Genealogies
 Interviews both formal and informal
 Video/audio taping
 Case studies-intensive examination of a
situation or unit conducted over a period of
time
 Participant observation thru ethnography (a
portrait of a people)
Steps in Social Research
 Identify the focus of inquiry (research
problem)
 Review and cite related literatures and
studies
 Develop the research methodology and
design
 Collect the Data
 Analyze the data and the findings
 Make conclusions
 Formulate the theory
Sociological Perspectives
Functionalism Conflict Symbolic
Interactionism
Society is seen as a stable Society is in a continuous People in society interact
system state of conflict between through symbols
groups and classes

Society is composed of Society is held together People act according to


different parts or structure through the power of perception of the situation
which perform interrelated dominant groups (definition of situation)
or complementary
functions
Disequilibrium in society is Harmonious equilibrium in Meaning is central to
a result of society’s parts society is viewed as an understanding people’s
getting dysfunctional but illusion held by those who actions, how these
will evolve to regain fail to see how the meanings are derived, and
equilibrium dominant groups have how others respond to
exploited others them
Comparing Major Theoretical
Perspectives
View of Society Stable, well Characterized by Active in
integrated tension and influencing and
struggle between affecting everyday
groups social interaction

Key concepts Manifest functions Inequality Symbols


Latent functions Capitalism Nonverbal
Dysfunction Stratification communication
Face-to-face

View of the People are People are shaped People manipulate


individual socialized to by power, symbols and
perform societal coercion, and create their social
functions authority worlds through
interaction
Comparing Major Theoretical
Perspectives
View of the social Maintained Maintained Maintained by
order through through force and shared
cooperation and coercion understanding of
consensus everyday behavior
Example Public Laws reinforce the People respect
punishments positions of those laws or disobey
reinforce the social in power them based on
order their own past
experience
Social class A status level of A group of people
persons sharing sharing similar
similar incomes economic interests
and life-styles. and power needs.
Develops from Develops from the
different roles success of some in
persons and exploiting others.
groups fill.
Comparing Major Theoretical
Perspectives
Social Inequality Inevitable in Unnecessary and
complex societies. unjust. Due largely
Due largely to to power
different differences.
contributions of Avoidable through
different groups. socialist reordering
of society.
Social change Arises from Imposed by one
changing class upon another
functional needs in its own interest.
of society.
Social order An unconscious Produced and
product of maintained by
people’s efforts to organized coercion
organize their by the dominant
activities classes.
productively.
Comparing Major Theoretical
Perspectives
Values Consensus on Conflicting
values unites the interests divide
society. society. Illusion of
value consensus
maintained by
dominant classes.
Social institutions: Cultivate common Cultivate values
churches, schools, values and and loyalties
mass media loyalties which which protect the
unite society. privileged.
Law and Enforce rules Enforce rules
government reflecting value imposed by
consensus of the dominant classes
society. to protect their
privileges.
 Americans eat oysters but not snails
 Frenchs snails locusts
 Zulus locusts fish
 Jews fish pork
 Hindus pork beef
 Russians beef snakes
 Chinese eat snakes but not people
 Jale of New Guinea find people delicious
(Robertson, 1981)
Culture (L,cultura/colere-tillage, to cultivate)

 …taken in wide ethnographic sense is


that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,
custom, and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of
society (Tylor, 1871:1)
Culture
 "set of distinctive spiritual, material,
intellectual and emotional features of
society or a social group, and that it
encompasses, in addition to art and
literature, lifestyles, ways of living
together, value systems, traditions and
beliefs". (UNESCO, 2002)
Culture….a group product…socially
acquired

a system of norms and values which


people hold.

Culture universal human capacity to classify, codify and


communicate their experiences symbolically.

a way of life…a system of thought and


behavior
Culture is….
the total, socially acquired lifestyle of a
group of people, including their
patterned, repetitive ways of thinking,
feeling, and acting (Harris and Johnson, 2001).
Aspects
of
Culture

mental behavioral
thoughts and feelings observable actions
that exist at various levels
of consciousness
Perspectives for Viewing
Cultural Phenomena
 Emics- culture is described from the
participants’ viewpoints, the observer uses
concepts and distinctions that are meaningful
and appropriate to the participants
 Etics- culture is described from the observer’s
perspectives, the observer uses concepts and
distinctions that are meaningful and
appropriate to the observer
Required reading…

 Mirror for Man, Clyde Kluchohn,


1949
in Introduction to Sociology by Hebding
and Glick,1992

Implicit vs explicit culture


Components of Culture
 Material culture- things people create
and use…artifacts
 Non-material culture- those which are
intangibles that includes norms, values
etc.
Non-material culture
 Norms- standard pattern of behavior

- statistical norms that represent what


people actually do (7 out of 10 smokes)

- cultural norms which are standards of


expected behavior
Bangang Manunggul
Norms
 are behavior expectation in different
situations (e.g. visiting the wake,
husbands turn over their pay to the
wives)
Types of Norms
 Folkways (Sumner)- customary rules of
conduct or typical habits and patterns
of expected behavior… e.g. washing
hands before eating
 Mores-special folkways which involves
ethical or moral values; standards of
conduct that are coercive in nature,
valued to be necessary to group
welfare…e.g. monogamy, honesty
 Laws- are formalized norms, written
and enacted in a conscious manner by
chosen representatives and are
enforced by the state. e.g.… R.A. 7610
Sanctions
are different methods by which each
culture enforces its norms.
Violators of Social Norms will be:
 pagtsitsismisan
 Lalaitin
 Lalayuan
 Itatakwil
 Ihihiwalay (kulong)
 Babansagan (e.g. Mando___, Aiko___)
….when folkways and mores are integrated that
activities are formalized on a unit basis , they
become……

Institution… an organized system of social


relation which embodies certain values
and procedures and meet certain basic
needs of society
Norms….
 specially folkways and mores arose from daily
living
 to address problems or needs of daily life
 as ways of doing things are tried, developed
and regarded as proper ways of fulfilling
needs
 Many are not by rational decision but
repetition and social acceptance
 Passed on as expected and proper from one
generation to another
Values

 notions of worth or desirability


 represents judgments of

moral/immoral, good/bad or of
the worth of objects, events,
actions or conditions
 May be held by one or many
Beliefs
 Ideas about the surrounding
environment
 provides explanation and interpreting
the world
 Concern on what is and what is not
Language
 An intricate set of symbols made by
humans
 Influences man’s ways of feelings,
perceiving , and behaving
Only humans posses culture
 Animals do not have culture and their
learning cannot be accumulated to be
passed from generation to generation
as “social heritage”

WHY?
CULTURE IS ESSENTIALLY SYMBOLIC

“ Symbols allow people to develop


complex thoughts and exchange those
thoughts with others. “
Characteristics of Culture
It is-
 Learned-created and developed by humans

 Shared- a quality of a group rather than an


individual
 Adaptive-response to physical and social
environment
 Cumulative- constantly grows and expanding
 Changing- open to change and not static,
changes from within and without
 Integrated with other elements of culture
 Though culture is shared by members
of society, individuals do not think and
act the same way (Sapir, 1930).

“Individual variation is the source


of new culture.”
Enculturation
 Partially concious/unconcious learning experience
whereby the culture of society is shared and absorbs
from generation to generation.

 Passing of cultural traits from one generation to the


next.

 Is achieved through the control that the adult


generation exercises over the means of rewarding
and punishment (Harris and Johnson, 2001)
 Replication of cultural patters from one
generation to the next is never
complete (generation)
 Enculturation can account for the
continuity of culture but not of the
evolution of culture
Diffusion
 Passing of of cultural traits from one
culture and society to another.

 Takes place when culture contacts leads


to borrowing and passing on of culture
traits.
Cultural Variation
 Different societies have different
cultures… because of their various
responses to their needs

CULTURAL UNIVERSALS…characteristics
common to all cultures.
Ethnoscentrism

 Is a value system that denies the worth


of other cultures and encourages
rejection of those brought up in
different traditions (Broom, 1990)

 XENOCENTRISM…rejections of some
elements of one’s culture
Cultural Relativism
 Holds that there can be no universal
standard to evaluate cultures or norms
as good or bad and that each culture
must be seen in its own terms (Broom. 1990)
Subculture
 Is a distinctive way of life that has
much in common with the dominant
culture but is readily recognized as
standing apart from it.
 Members of a subculture share certain
cultural features that are significantly
different from those of the rest of
society.(Harris and Johnson, 2001)
Cultural Change
 Diffusion- a change in culture brought
about by contact with other cultures.
 (different ideas, values, and practices
maybe accepted as alternative
solutions).
 Innovation- an introduction of new
values or practices
Cultural Lag
 is the delay between an innovation and
cultural adaptation (Ogburn,1950)

…….emphasizes the gap between


technical knowledge (material culture)
and the ways of adjusting to
technological change (adaptive culture).
Culture shock- is experienced when
people see their deeply held values and
beliefs violated
Tradition and Traditionalism
Philippine culture
 Austronesian heritage=kabihasnabg Maritimo
 Mga pictures
 Lipunan at kulturang Pilipino
 A mixture of east and west
 Pagpapahalagang Pilipino
 Pagkataong Pilipino
 Hiya, anting anting etc
 Mga katutubo,ipabasa ang modyul

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