Programme 23: Polar Coordinate Systems

Programme 23: Polar coordinate systems
PROGRAMME 23
POLAR
COORDINATE
SYSTEMS
STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Introduction to polar coordinates

Polar curves
Standard polar curves
Applications


Polar curves
Applications

The position of a point in a plane can be represented by:
(a) Cartesian coordinates (x, y)

(b) polar coordinates (r, θ)
The two systems are related by

the equations:
x  r cos and y  r sin 

Given that:
x  r cos and y  r sin 

then:
 y
r  x 2  y 2 and   tan 1  
x


Polar curves
Applications


Polar curves
Applications

Polar curves
In polar coordinates the equation of a curve is given by an equation of the

form r = f (θ ) whose graph can be plotted in a similar way to that of an
equation in Cartesian coordinates. For example, to plot the graph of:
r = 2sinθ between the values 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
a table of values is constructed:

Polar curves
From the table of values it is then a

simple matter to construct the graph
of:
r = 2sinθ
(a) Choose a linear scale for r and

indicate it along the initial line.
(b) The value for r is then laid off

along each direction in turn, point
plotted, and finally joined up with
a smooth curve.

Polar curves
Note: When dealing with the 210º

direction, the value of r obtained is
negative and this distance is,
therefore, laid off in the reverse
direction which brings the plot to the
30º direction.
For values of θ between 180º and 360º
the value obtained for r is negative and
the first circle is retraced exactly. The
graph, therefore, looks like one circle
but consists of two circles one on top of
the other.

Polar curves
As a further example the plot of:
r = 2sin2θ
exhibits the two circles distinctly.


Polar curves
Applications


Polar curves
Applications

r = a sinθ r = a sin2θ

r = a cosθ r = a cos2θ

r = a sin2θ r = a sin3θ

r = a cos2θ r = a cos3θ

r = a(1 + cosθ ) r = a(1 + 2cosθ )

r2 = a2cos2θ r = aθ

The graphs of r = a + b cosθ
(a) a  b (cardioid)
(b) a  b (re-entrant loop)
(b) a  b (no cusp or re-entrant loop)


Polar curves
Applications


Polar curves
Applications

Applications
Area of a plane figure bounded by a polar curve
Volume of rotation of a polar curve
Arc length of a polar curve
Surface of rotation of a polar curve

Applications
Area of a plane figure bounded by a polar curve
Area of sector OPQ is δA where:

1
 A  r (r   r )sin 
2
Therefore:
 A dA
Lim 
 0  d
1 sin  
 Lim  r (r   r )
 0  2  
2
r2 1 2

2
so that A 
 1 2
r d

Applications
Area of sector OPQ is δA where:
1
 A  r (r   r )sin 
2
The volume generated when OPQ rotates

about the x-axis is δV where :
 V  area OPQ  distance travelled by its centroid (Pappus)

1 2
 r (r   r )sin  .2 . r sin 
2 3

Applications
Since:
1 2
 V  r (r   r )sin  .2 . r sin 
2 3
so:
 V dV
Lim 
 0  d
2 sin  
 Lim   r 2 (r   r ) sin  
 0  3  
2
2 2 3
  r3
3
and so V 
 1 3
r sin  d

Applications
Arc length of a polar curve
By Pythagoras:
 s 2  r 2 . 2   r 
2
so that:
s  r 
2 2
   r 2
  
     
therefore:
2 2 2
ds  dr   dr 
d
 r2   
 d 
Hence s 
 1
r2    d
 d 

Applications
If the element of arc PQ rotates

about the x-axis then, by Pappus’
theorem, the area of the surface
generated is given as:
S = (the length of the arc) × (the

distance travelled by its centroid)
That is:
 S   s.2 .PL
  s.2 r sin 

Applications
Since:
 S   s.2 .PL
  s.2 r sin 
so:
S s
 .2 r sin 
 
Therefore:
2 2 2
dS  dr   dr 
 2 r sin  r 2    and so S   2 r sin  r  
2
 d
d  d   1  d 

Learning outcomes
Convert expressions from Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates
Plot the graphs of polar curves
Recognize equations of standard polar curves
Evaluate the areas enclosed by polar curves
Evaluate the volumes of revolution generated by polar curves
Evaluate the lengths of polar curves
Evaluate the surfaces of revolution generated by polar curves

Programme 23: Polar Coordinate Systems

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Programme 23: Polar coordinate systems

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Introduction to polar coordinates

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Introduction to polar coordinates

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Introduction to polar coordinates

The position of a point in a plane can be represented by:

(a) Cartesian coordinates (x, y)

The two systems are related by

x  r cos and y  r sin 

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Introduction to polar coordinates

x  r cos and y  r sin 

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Introduction to polar coordinates

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Introduction to polar coordinates

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

In polar coordinates the equation of a curve is given by an equation of the

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

From the table of values it is then a

(a) Choose a linear scale for r and

(b) The value for r is then laid off

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Note: When dealing with the 210º

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

As a further example the plot of:

exhibits the two circles distinctly.

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Introduction to polar coordinates

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Introduction to polar coordinates

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Standard polar curves

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Standard polar curves

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Standard polar curves

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Standard polar curves

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Standard polar curves

r = a(1 + cosθ ) r = a(1 + 2cosθ )

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Standard polar curves

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Standard polar curves

The graphs of r = a + b cosθ

(b) a  b (re-entrant loop)

(b) a  b (no cusp or re-entrant loop)

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Introduction to polar coordinates

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Introduction to polar coordinates

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Area of sector OPQ is δA where:

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Area of sector OPQ is δA where:

The volume generated when OPQ rotates

 V  area OPQ  distance travelled by its centroid (Pappus)

STROUD Worked examples and exercises are in the text