JULVEN L.

BATALLER
5TH YEAR CIVIL ENGINEERING STUDENT
IRRIGATION, FLOOD CONTROL AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

SEPTEMBER 20, 2018

•ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF SALT

Where Does the Salt Come From?

Salt comes from the minerals of the earth's crust.
Weathering decomposes the minerals and releases the
salt in a soluble form.

Why Does Salt Accumulate in Soil?

Salt accumulates when water evaporates at the
surface, or is extracted by plant roots. Both processes
separate the salt from the water and the salt remains
behind.
 •FACTORS AFFECTING SALINATION
•Method of Irrigation

Water is usually in plentiful supply when an irrigation project begins.

Consequently, too much water is applied. This excess water often
does more harm than good, because it tends to raise the water table
and thus increases drainage problems.

•Type of Drainage
Adequate drainage is important in maintaining a low salinity level. If
a field is not adequately drained, water may accumulate in the root
zone and saturate the soil. This hastens the rise of the water table.
When the water table rises to within 5 or 6 feet of the surface,
ground water and its salt move upward in to the root zone and to
the soil surface.
Cont…
•Other Conditions

Some fields accumulate salt because of their location, because

they are not leveled, or because the soil is impermeable. Like
Low valleys located close to streams or high points on the field
which receives sufficient water or the cement like formation
underlie the soil.
Sources of salinity
Salts in soil and irrigation water may be either
• naturally present as products of geo-chemical
weathering
of rocks and parent materials
• derived directly from sea water by flooding, spray,
or intrusion into groundwater resources
• caused by irrigation mismanagement, particularly
when internal soil drainage is impeded.
SOURCES OF SOIL SALINITY
Natural causes:
• Weathering of parent material with little or no leaching
• more salinity in hot, dry regions (climate + irrigation)
• Accumulation of salts in enclosed drainage basins
• Coastal spray and inundation
• High water tables (capillary rise brings salts to the surface)
• Irrigation
• Not just with poor quality water
• Inadequate leaching and drainage
• Acid rain (enhances weathering; salt production)
• Application of fertilizers, manures, biosolids, composts which are
often saline
Salt-impacted
agricultural
soils
 MEASUREMENT OF SALINITY
 Electrical Conductivity (EC) is an measure of the flow of
electricity through a material
 Saline soils and salty water conduct more electricity than
nonsaline soils or pure water. It is the ions that pass or
conduct electricity from one ion to the next.
 As salt concentration increases, EC increases.
 Acidic or low pH solutions also exhibit high EC
 Expressed in dS/m (SI units) or mmhos/cm (old unit)
 dS/m = mmhos/cm
 Use an EC ‘bridge’ or meter to measure how well water
extracted from soil can conduct electricity:

Dissolved ions and two Voltage is applied & ions move toward
metal plates oppositely charged plates
 Deionized water: 0.0005 to 0.002
 NMSU tap water: 0.5 to 1.0 (rarely this high)
 Seawater: 40 to 55
 Good irrigation water: < 0.7
 Rio Grande N of Las Cruces is good
 Quality decreases (EC increases) downstream
 Poor quality irrigation water: > 3
 Saturated Paste Extract EC of saline soils: ≥ 4
Conductivity meter Electromagnetic induction

Time Domain Reflectometry

MEASUREMENT OF SALINITY – TDS
TDS – Total dissolved solids
 Cations + anions + anything <2 microns
 Good quality water has <500 mg/L or ppm TDS
 measure using gravimetry or EC
 Evaporate water off and accurately weigh the residue
 Problematic due to hydration and volatilization
 EC (dS/m) x 640 ≈ TDS (mg/L)
 TDS ‘meters’ are really EC meters with conversion factor
 That portion of the Total Soil Water Potential due
to the presence of solutes in soil water
 Salts reduce the water potential by inhibiting the
movement of water molecules
 OP (kPa) ≈ -0.40 x EC (dS/m)

Water Diluted by a Solute (Red

Pure Water OP = 0 Spheres) OP is negative
http://www.genomestudy.com/BIO196/Lab4/osmosis.gif
 SALINE SOILS
 Most common salt problem and the easiest to correct
 EC > 4.0 dS/m; SAR < 13 or ESP < 15
 May be called ‘white alkali’ because of the
accumulation of salts on the surface
 Typical ions: Ca+2, Mg+2, K+, Na+; SO4-2, Cl-, HCO3-
Soil Chemistry of Saline Soils
• pH is usually 7.8 - 8.2 but can also be acidic

Soil Physical Condition

• Soil physical condition is generally good (well aggregated with good
internal fluid movement)
• Crusting may be a problem
Plant Growth Problems
• Osmotic potential contributes significantly to total water potential;
inability of plant to extract water is the major plant growth problem
on saline soils.
• Toxic ions can be a problem (Na+, Cl-, HCO3-)
• Plants differ in their tolerance to salt
 a major threat to agricultural productivity in arid regions
 One-third of the world’s irrigated land is salinized
 More than one million hectares affected
 Salts cause both osmotic effects and specific ion toxicity
 Soil Salinity
Salt affected soils are caused by excess accumulation of salts, typically most
pronounced at the soil surface.

Salts are transported to the soil surface by capillary transport from a salt laden
water table and accumulates due to evaporation.

As soil salinity increases, salt effects can result in degradation of soils and
vegetation.

Salt is a natural element of soils and water. The ions responsible for salinization
are: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Cl-.
As the Na+ (sodium) predominates, a salt affected soil is often also a sodic soil.

Salinization is a natural process that results from:

• high levels of salt in the soils.
• landscape features that allow salts to become mobile (movement of
water table)
• climatic trends that favour accumulation
 Soil Salinity
What is Salinization?

Salinization is the process by which water-

soluble salts accumulate at the surface of
soil.

Salinization is a resource concern because

excess salts hinder the growth of crops by
limiting their ability to take up water.

Salinization may occur naturally or because

of conditions resulting from management
practices.
Atacama desert, salt flats

Photo: palegoldenrod (flickr.com)

Any process that affects the soil-water
balance may affect the movement and
accumulation of salts in the soil: hydrology,
climate, irrigation, drainage, plant cover and
rooting characteristics, farming practices
 Soil Salinity
Salinization
In some areas (for example the Middle East, Australia)
enormous amounts of salts are stored in the soils.

Human practices have increased the salinity of top

soils by bringing salt to the surface through disrupting
natural water cycles (irrigation, land clearing, draining
etc.).

One of the best examples of excess salinization was

observed in Egypt in 1970 when the Aswan High Dam
was built:
Aswan Dam • Change in the level of ground water before the
Photo: Hajor (wikimedia construction enabled soil erosion
commons) • Led to high concentration of salts in the water
table.
• High level of the water table after construction
led to the salinization of the arable land
 The Salinization Process
Can occur when the water table is between two to three metres from the surface
of the soil.

The salts from the groundwater are raised by capillary action to the surface
of the soil.

This occurs when groundwater is saline (which is true in many areas), and is
favoured by land use practices, allowing more rainwater to enter the aquifer
than it could accommodate.

For example, the clearing of trees for agriculture is a major reason for
dryland salinity in some areas, since deep rooting of trees has been replaced
by shallow rooting of annual crops.
The Salinization Process
 Causes of Salinization

Primary Salinization: 80% of salt-

affected land has a natural origin.
Salts formed by weathering of rocks
or natural external inputs.

Secondary Salinization: 20% of

salt-affected lands, and around 15
Mha on the continent of Africa, have
a "man-made" origin. Human
activity linked to agricultural
practices and in particular to
Flood irrigation irrigation.
 Causes of Salinization

Salinization on the soil surface occurs where the following conditions occur
together:
• the presence of soluble salts (sulphates of sodium, calcium, magnesium) in
the soil
• a high water table
• a high rate of evaporation
• low annual rainfall

Salinization often occurs on the rims of depressions and edges of channels, at the
base of hillslopes, and in flat, low-lying areas surrounding shallow bodies of water.

These areas receive additional water from below the surface, which evaporates,
and the salts are left behind on the soil surface.

Human practices that increase the soil moisture content (e.g. irrigation) increase
salinization as the water moves through hillslope soil, accumulates in seeps and
then evaporates.
Causes of Salinization
Irrigation

Almost all water (other than natural

rainfall) contains some dissolved salts.

Water is continually added through

irrigation and lost from the soil through
evapotranspiration and the salts that are
left behind accumulate.

Since soil salinity makes it more difficult

for plants to absorb soil moisture, these
salts must be leached out of the plant root
zone by applying additional water.

This, in turn, can lead to rising water

tables, requiring drainage to keep the
saline groundwater out of the root zone.
Causes of Salinization
Irrigation

If the water table rises too high, then natural

soil evaporation will begin to draw the salts
back upward into the soil profile.

The problem is accelerated when too much

water is added too quickly due to inefficient
water use:
• applying more water than is required for
leaching,
• using bad estimates of evapotranspiration
• poor drainage
• use of saline water for irrigating
agricultural crops.

These practices result in the concentration of

salts in the soil.
Impacts of Salinization
Global Extent

• 10 hectares of land suitable for cultivation is

lost every minute, 3 hectares of which is as a
result of salinization (equivalent to 1.5 Mha
per year).

• Today almost 400 Mha are affected by

salinization.

• In Africa almost 40 Mha are affected by

salinization, around 2% of the total surface
area.

• In the Near East almost 92 Mha are affected

by salinization, around 5% of the total
surface area.

International Commission on Water Resources Systems (2006)

Impacts of Salinization
Urban Areas

Salinity in urban areas often results

from the combination of irrigation and
groundwater processes.

Cities are often located on drylands,

leaving the rich soils for agriculture.
Irrigation is also now common in cities
(gardens and recreation areas).

Can cause yield damage to

infrastructure (roads, bricks, corrosion
of pipes and cables)
 Impacts of Salinization
Vegetation

Salts in the soil increase the efforts by plant roots to take in water.

High levels of salt in the soil have a similar effect as drought - making water
less available for uptake by plant roots.

Few plants grow well on saline soils; therefore, salinisation often restricts
options for cropping in a given land area.

Salinization degrades the quality of shallow ground water and surface water
resources, such as ponds, sloughs, and dugouts.
Impacts of Salinization
The Aral Sea
The effect of salt on plants and soil
The effect of salt on plants
As salts accumulate in saline discharge areas they can reach levels that
affect plants in a number of ways. This leads to poor plant health, a loss of
productive species and dominance of salt-tolerant species.
Osmotic effect
Under normal conditions, plants readily obtain water from the soil by osmosis
(movement of water from a lower salt concentration outside the plant to a
higher salt concentration in the plant). As soil salinity increases this balance
shifts making it more difficult for plants to extract water.
Toxic effect
Plant growth can be directly affected by high levels of toxic ions such as
sodium and chloride. Excess sodium accumulation in leaves can cause leaf
burn, necrotic (dead) patches and even defoliation. Plants affected by
chloride toxicity exhibit similar foliar symptoms, such as leaf bronzing and
necrotic spots in some species. Defoliation can occur in some woody
species.
Ionic imbalance
An excess of some salts can cause an imbalance in the ideal ratio of salts in solution and
reduce the ability of plants to take up nutrients. For example, relatively high levels of
calcium can inhibit the uptake of iron (‘lime induced chlorosis’), and high sodium can
exclude potassium.
Effect of waterlogging on salinity tolerance
Waterlogging exacerbates the effect of salinity. Waterlogged plant roots are unable to
exclude sodium and chloride due to the increased rates of transport of these ions, and
concentrations in the plant shoot increase. Poor aeration also affects soil biology
responsible for converting nutrients to their plant available form, causing nutrient
deficiencies.
 Summary

 Salinization is a problem of global significance and one that is

rapidly growing as a consequence of human activity

 Better agricultural and land management practices are necessary

to reduce the impact of salinization

 Management efforts should focus both on recharge (the amount of

water infiltrating into the soil) and discharge (the uptake/removal
of water from the soil).