• The coils or conductors moves from one pole to

another during the operation of the generator. The

direction of the current in the coil reverses by the
combined action of the commutator and brushes. The
brushes normally fixed on the commutator segments.
The brushes move from one segment to other segment
of the commutator when the coil rotates in clockwise
direction. A short period of time is required for the
reversal of the current. The coil undergoing
commutation will induce the voltage due to rate of
change of current i.e. Ldi/dt. This voltage in known as
reactance voltage. As a result of reactance voltage,
spark occurs at the brushes of the machine.
• In order to increase the capacity of a system
serving different loads, a no. Of generators are
connected in parallel.

• Basic Requirements:
1. The same external characteristics(ex. Same
kw rating, voltage rating, regulation)
2. Terminal polarity must be the same.
3. Terminal voltage be equal in magnitude.
 Operation of Shunt Generators in
Parallel
• If two shunt generators
have identical external
characteristics, that is, if
the voltage changes in
both exactly the same
amount for the same %
of change in load, then
the two machines will
divide the total load in
proportion to their
relative capacities.
• As load increases, it will ultimately
become necessary to, (a) connect a
larger generator than A in parallel to the
latter, after which the smaller machine,
when gradually unloaded, is disconnected
from the line, or (b) connect another
generator in parallel with A and have two
machines operate jointly to supply the
total load.
 Operation of Compound Generators in Parallel

• When two compound

generators are to be operated
in parallel, it is necessary to use
essentially the same wiring as
that employed for shunt
machines, except that an
equalizer connection must be
added.
• An equalizer is a very low-
resistance copper wire that
joins together identical ends of
the series fields, the other ends
of which are connected
together after the main
switches have been closed.
 Losses in a D.C. Machine

• The losses in a d.c. machine (generator or

motor) may be divided into three classes (i)
copper losses (ii) iron or core losses and (iii)
mechanical losses.
• All these losses appear as heat and thus
raise the temperature of the machine.
• They also lower the efficiency of the
machine.
 Copper losses
The power lost in the form of heat in the armature winding of a generator
is known as COPPER
LOSS. Heat is generated any time current flows in a conductor. Copper loss
is an I2R loss, which
increases as current increases. Copper loss is minimized in armature
windings by using large diameter
wire.

• There is also brush contact loss due to brush contact resistance (i.e., resistance
between the surface of brush and surface of commutator). This loss is
generally included in armature copper loss.
 Copper losses

1.Armature Copper Loss

2.Shunt and series field copper Loss

Iron or Core losses

• These losses occur in the armature of a d.c.

machine and are due to the rotation of
armature in the magnetic field of the poles.
They are of two types ,
• (i) hysteresis loss
• (ii) eddy current loss.
Hysteresis loss

• Hysteresis loss occurs in the armature of the d.c.

machine since any given part of the armature is
subjected to magnetic field reversals as it passes under
successive poles. Fig. shows an armature rotating in
two-pole machine.
 Hysteresis loss
• Consider a small piece ab of the armature. When the piece ab is under N-
pole, the magnetic lines pass from a to b.
• Half a revolution later, the same piece of iron is under S-pole and magnetic
lines pass from b to a so that magnetism in the iron is reversed.

To compensate for hysteresis losses, heat-treated silicon steel laminations are used in most dc
generator armatures.
 Eddy Current Loss
• In addition to the voltages induced in the
armature conductors, there are also voltages
induced in the armature core.
• These voltages produce circulating currents
in the armature core.
• These are called eddy currents and power
loss due to their flow is called eddy current
loss.
• The eddy current loss appears as heat which
raises the temperature of the machine and
lowers its efficiency.
• The laminations are insulated from each
other with a coating of varnish.
• The insulating coating has a high resistance,
so very little current flows from one
lamination to the other.
• Also, because each lamination is very thin,
the resistance to current flowing through the
width of a lamination is also quite large.
• Thus laminating a core increases the core
resistance which decreases the eddy current
and hence the eddy current Loss.
Where:
•Ke = Constant depending upon the electrical resistance of core and
system of units used

•Bmax = Maximum flux density in Wb/m2

•f = Frequency of magnetic reversals in Hz

•t = Thickness of lamination in m

•V = Volume of core in m3
Mechanical losses

These losses are due to friction and windage.

• (i) friction loss e.g., bearing friction, brush friction etc.
• (ii) windage loss i.e., air friction of rotating armature.
• These losses depend upon the speed of the machine.
But for a given speed, they are practically constant.
• Note. Iron losses and mechanical losses together are
called stray losses.
 Constant and Variable Losses
The losses in a d.c. generator (or d.c. motor) may be sub-divided into
(i) Constant losses
(ii) Variable losses.

Constant losses • Variable Losses

• Those losses in a d.c. generator which • Those losses in a d.c. generator
remain constant at all loads are which vary with load are called
known as constant losses.
variable losses.
• The constant losses in a d.c.
generator are:
• The variable losses in a d.c.
generator are:
(a) Iron losses
(b) Mechanical losses
(c) Shunt field loss
• The various power stages in a D.C. generator
are represented diagrammatically in Fig.
A - B = Iron and friction losses
B - C = Copper losses
2.) Electrical Efficiency

3.) Overall or Commercial Efficiency

It is obvious that overall efficiency is

For good generators, its value may be as high as
95%.
Efficiency of DC Generators

 Magnet type and strength

 Magnetic gap
 Winding resistance
 Heat
 Windage
 Load characteristics