Learning and Memory

• Learning and memory form the principal higher intellectual functions.

• Learning is defined as the process by which new information is
acquired. It is the process by which behavior is altered by experience.
• There is an intricate relationship between learning and memory in
that memory is the ability to recall learnt information.
• There are basically two types of learning:
Associative and
Non-associative learning
• Associative learning: involves learning about relations between two or
more stimuli simultaneously. For example the conditioned reflex
• Non-associative learning: involves response to only one type of
stimulus based on factors like habituation and sensitization.
Habituation: this means getting used to a constantly exposed stimuli.
During the first experience, the stimulus is novel evoking a response,
however with repeated exposure, response becomes progressively
reduced until the individual is habituated.
Sensitization: this simply means amplification of response to stimuli
i.e a state in which the body becomes more sensitive to a stimulus. If
a stimulus to which an individual is habituated is combined with
another stimulus (pleasant or unpleasant) the individual becomes
more sensitive to the original stimulus. E.g A woman who is used to
sleeping with noise will suddenly wake up when her baby cries
Memory
• Memory is defined as the ability to recall the past experience learnt.
• Memories are stored in the brain by changing the basic sensitivity of
synaptic transmission between neurons as a result of previous neural
activity. The new or facilitated pathways are called memory traces. They
are important because once the traces are established, they can be
selectively activated by the thinking mind to reproduce the memories.
• POSITIVE and NEGATIVE MEMORY
• Although we often think of memories as being positive recollections of
previous thoughts or experiences but it seems the greater share of our
memories is negative, not positive.
• But if our minds attempt to remember all information from our senses the
memory capacity of the brain would be overwhelmed. Fortunately, the
brain has the capacity to learn to ignore inconsequential information. This
results from inhibition of the synaptic pathways for this type of information
resulting in memory habituation. This is a type of negative memory
• Conversely consequential information such as pain or pleasure lead to
an enhanced storage of memory traces. This is a type of positive
memory. It results from facilitation of the synaptic pathways, and the
process is called memory sensitization
• CLASSIFICATION OF MEMORIES
• There are various degrees of memory, some remain only for few
seconds while others last for hours, days, months or years
• Implicit memory: aka non declarative memory or skilled memory.
Here past experiences are utilized without conscious awareness. It is
necessary for skilled activities like cycling, driving, typing etc
• Explicit memory: aka declarative memory. It is memory that involves
conscious recollection of past experience. It involves recalling external
events occurring around us
• Memory can also be classified as Short term; intermediate long term
and long term
• Short term memory:
• It is recalling events that happened very recently i.e within hours or
days
• this is theoretically believed to be caused by continual neural activity
resulting from nerve signals that travel around and around a
temporary memory trace in a circuit of reverberating neurons.
• Short term memory is typified by one’s memory of 7 to 10 numerals
in a telephone number for a few seconds to a few minutes at a time
but lasting only as long as the person continues to think about the
number or facts
• It can be interrupted by stress, trauma and drug abuse
• Intermediate long term memory: this memories may last for many minutes
or weeks. They can be lost unless the memory traces are activated enough
to become more permanent.
• The molecular mechanism for this type of memory are the:
Mechanisms for facilitation:
It is believed to be due to stimulation of facilitator presynaptic terminal and
sensory terminal with release of serotonin at the facilitator synapse onto the
surface of the sensory terminal
Serotonin acts on serotonin receptors in the sensory terminal memb, these
receptors activate adenyl cyclase. This enzyme cause formation of cAMP
cAMP activates protein kinase that cause phosphorylation of a potassium
channels in the sensory terminal, this in turn blocks the potassium
conductance. This blockage last for minutes up to several weeks
The lack of potassium conductance causes a greatly prolonged action Potential
The prolonged AP causes prolonged activation of calcium channel allowing large influx of
calcium ion in the sensory synaptic terminal, this cause greatly increased NT release to the
subsequent neuron.
Mechanism for habituation: the habituation effect in the sensory terminal results from
progressive closure of calcium channels through the terminal membrane.
• Long term memory: it is believed that the development of true longterm memory
depends on physically restructuring the synapses themselves in a way that changes their
sensitivity for transmitting nervous signals the most important of these changes are:
Increase in vesicle release sites for secretion of NT
Increase in number of transmitter vesicles released
Increase in no. of presynaptic terminals
Changes in structure of the dendritic spines that permit stronger transmission of stronger
signals
Long term memory is also called remote memory and it is involved in recalling of the
events of weeks, months, years or even a lifetime.
• Longterm M is more resistant and is not easily disrupted
• Based on duration it can be
• Sensory memory:this is ability to retain sensory signals in the sensory
areas of the brain. this is retained only for a short period. It is the
initial stage of memory. They are easily replaced.
• Primary memory: this is the memory of facts, words, numbers, letter
or information recalled for few secs to minutes. E.g recalling a phone
no.. It is esay to recall but easily repaced by new memory e.g looking
up another phone no.
• Secondary memory:this is storage of info in the brain for a longer
period.
CONSOLIDATION OF MEMORY
• Process by which short term memory is crystallized into long term memory.
It causes permanent facilitation of synapse.
• It is possible by rehearsal mechanism i.e rehearsal of the same info again
and again accelerates and potentiates the degree of transfer of short term
memory to long term.
• APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
• Amnesia:
• Retrograde (failure to recall past remote long term memory due to
temporal lobe syndrome) and Anterograde (failure to establish new long
term memory due to hippocampal lesion)
• Dementia
• Drugs Faciltating Memory
• Caffeine, amphetamine, nicotine