Cell Structure and

Function
 Introduction
 In modern medicine, the concept of disease

is based on abnormalities of cell structure

and cell behavior.

 This concept was first propounded by a

German pathologist – Rudolph Virchow.

 Hence, it becomes important to be

conversant about those aspects of cell

structure and function that are relevant for

study of any disease.

Structural
Features of a
Cell
 Cell Membrane
 Cell membrane consists of proteins and lipids.
 Lipids are in form of phospholipids and sterols.
 According to fluid mosaic model of Singer and
Nicholson, these molecules form a trilaminar structure,
that is known as unit membrane.
 Lipid molecules are amphiphilic in structure i.e. they
contain both water-soluble and lipid soluble regions.
 Hydrophilic ends of the lipid molecule are directed
towards the outer and inner aspect of the cell
membrane. The hydrophobic ends are directed towards
the middle of the cell membrane.
Structure of Unit Membrane (schematic
diagram)
 Protein
molecules can
move within the
lipid layer and
this property is of
vital importance
for numerous
physiological
processes
 Membrane proteins are of two types – extrinsic and
intrinsic.
 Intrinsic proteins are transmembrane in location.
Extrinsic proteins are loosely attached to the outer
surface of the cell membrane or to the intrinsic proteins.
 Some proteins are fixed to the cell membrane through
their attachment to the cytoskeletal elements.
 Function of cell membrane proteins:
 Act as specific receptors for drugs, hormones viruses etc.
 Serve as ion-channels
 Act as adhesion molecules or molecules of cell recognition.
 Some have enzymatic functions like tyrosine kinase activity that
is important in cell signaling.
 Protein molecules in combination with lipids provide
immunological specificity to a cell.
HIV virus infecting T cells at
specific sites
 Cell Membrane Functions
 Movement

 Cell recognition and receptor function

 Cell growth

 Cell adhesion

 Transfer function

 Cell to Cell communication

Cell Membrane Functions
 Movement: Phagocytosis
 Cell recognition: self vs non self
 Receptor function: for drugs, hormones and microorganisms.
Number of receptors vary in different individuals (variable effect
of drugs etc)
 Cell growth: contact inhibition
 Cell adhesion: embryonic development, homing of lymphoid
cells, homing of transfused marrow cells, transmigration during
inflammation, tumor metastasis
 Transfer function: lipid soluble drugs, ion channels, phagocytosis,
pinocytosis, diffusion, active transport.
 Cell to Cell communication: chemical messengers like
neurotransmitters, hormones, PRF, chemicals (histamine)
Interleukins: These are multifactorial cytokines
produced by lymphoid and non-lymphoid cells.
Many of them have immunoregulatory functions,
although some may affect functioning of other cells
also, for e.g. PGs are produced by fibroblasts when
acted upon by interleukins.

Interferons are a group of PRF that have anti-viral

and immunoregulatory functions and also have an
effect on intracellular pathogens, especially viruses.

Growth factors are substances that stimulate cell

proliferation and differentiation
 Nucleus
Nucleus is bound by a nuclear envelope. Its outer surface
is studded with ribosomes.
Normally the nucleus has a regular outline. It shows
irregular folding in conditions like regeneration,
hyperplasia and neoplasia.
The principal component of nucleus is DNA and RNA.
DNA appears as chromatin on HE stain. RNA is
concentrated in the nucleolus.
During cell interphase, chromatin is present in an
extended form and cannot be resolved as chromosomes.
During cell division, chromatin aggregates into
chromosomes and becomes easily visible.
In addition to DNA, some RNA and histone and non-
histone proteins are also present in a chromosome.
 Nucleus,
nuclear
chromatin and
nucleolus
Nucleus
WBC precursor in mitosis showing chromosomes
Chromosome
Spread
 DNA Molecule
 Each chromosome consists of a single long strand of DNA formed from
nucleotides, sugar and phosphate group.

 DNA molecule appears as a string of beads and the beaded areas are
called nucleosomes.

 Primary DNA coiling occurs around histone proteins. These proteins act
not only as packaging material but also influence expression of DNA
molecule.

 A portion of chromosome remains permanently coiled, even during

interphase. It is functionally inactive and is called constitutive
heterochromatin and appears as chromocentres on cytological
examination. Sometimes during inactivation of an extended portion of
DNA may occur as seen in formation of Barr body in females. This form
of heterochromatin is called facultative heterochromatin.

 Rest of the chromatin is lightly stained and constitutes the active form
of chromatin. This is called euchromatin.
Structure of DNA
DNA Coiling
Cell
showing
presence of
two Barr
bodies
 Functions of DNA
 It carries information for formation of proteins
 It carries information for development, functioning and aging of cells.
 It carries information for initiating death of a cell.

 Only about 50% of DNA molecule participates in transcription to form

an initial RNA transcript. Initial RNA transcript is spliced to yield the
final RNA molecules. Intervening sequence of nucleotides that are
spliced out are called introns. The segment of DNA encoding for the
final mRNA is called exons.
 Only about 10% of the DNA encodes for exons.
 Portion of DNA that is not transcribed are called junk DNA. Junk DNA
contains some repetitive areas called satellites and mini-satellites.
 Amongst these are some highly repetitive sequences that are called
variable number of tandem repeats. These areas are highly specific for
any single individual and are employed for the purpose of DNA
fingerprinting.
 RNA interference: Junk DNA is now shown to produce some
microRNA molecules that have been shown to modulate expression of
DNA
DNA
Transcription
and
Translation
 DNA Replication
 A set of three bases is called a codon and each codon codes for a single
amino acid.

 A gene is a segment of chromosome that encodes for a peptide.

 mRNA is transcribed from its corresponding segment of DNA with the

help of DNA dependent RNA polymerase (transcriptase).

 Activation of any gene is influenced by a sequence of upstream DNA

called promoter. Activity of promoters is regulated by enhancers, which
themselves are regulated by transcription factor. Transcription factors are
produced in response to membrane receptor activation.

 Mutations involving transcription factors are responsible for many

diseases.

 During the process of mRNA formation, DNA needs to uncoil. This

activity is controlled by enzymes called topoisomerases. Many antibiotics
and anti-cancer drugs produce their effect by targeting topoisomerase
enzyme
Nucleolus
 Nucleolus is the site of RNA formation. However, its
precise role in this activity is unclear.

 Nucleolus has a fibrillar center formed of nucleolar

organizer region.

 Ribosomal subunits are formed in the nucleolus by

assembly of rRNA and ribosomal proteins.

 Ribosomal subunits are transported to cytoplasm to

form ribosomes.

 Any cell with increased synthetic activity will have

prominent nucleolus.

 Similarly cells with enhanced growth activity are

believed to have increased number of NOR. Their
count is being utilized for diagnosis of tumors.
Components of Cytoplasm
 Water

 Proteins

 Organelles

 Inclusions

 Microfilaments and microtubules

Organelles
o Mitochondria

o Lysosomes

o Rough endoplasmic reticulum

o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

o Golgi complex

o Peroxisomes
 Mitochondria
 Mitochondria are the powerhouse of a cell. As they are
intimately concerned with energy production, they are one of
the organelles that show earliest effect of an injurious
stimulus.
 They have their own DNA, which encodes for 13 enzymes
(involved in oxidative phosphorylation) and 22 proteins (for
synthesis of tRNA).
 Mitochondrial DNA is transmitted exclusively by females. In
males, it is deleted during fertilization. For this reason,
diseases associated with mutation of mitochondrial DNA
show sex linkage.
 As the genetic code of mitochondrial DNA remains
unadulterated by the male fraction, its analysis can
accurately trace the genealogy of an individual.
 It also serves as an evolutionary clock.
 It may also be involved in the aging process
Mitochondria
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
 These organelles contain enzymes that work best at a
low pH.

 They are concerned intimately with waste disposal

and recycling system of a cell.

 Their great variety of hydrolytic enzymes is capable

of digesting nearly all constituents os a cell as well as
many foreign substances.

 Defect in these enzymes may lead to accumulation of

unwanted substances and consequent disease states.

 They also process endocytosed substances for use

within a cell.

 Their enzymes, if unregulated are responsible for

producing tissue damage during many disease states.
Lysosomes
Phago-
lysosome
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 RER are so called because of the presence of
numerous ribosomes on their surface.
 RER store and transport proteins manufactured
by the ribosomes. In certain disease states they
appear dilated due to accumulation of excess
proteins, for example in MM.
 Functions of smooth endoplasmic reticulum are:
 Metabolism of drugs, alcohol and other substances.
 Metabolism of steroid and cholesterol.
 Metabolism of carbohydrates. Synthesis of glycogen.
 They participate actively during the process of muscle
contraction.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulam
Golgi apparatus and cytoskeleton
Golgi complex

 It is concerned with packaging and modification of

proteins manufactured in RER and transported to this
organelle. The proteins and other substances entering
Golgi complex are sulphated, glycosylated or
phosphorylated. In this way, proteins meant for
different sites within a cell, are tagged and
subsequently transported.
 It also participates in formation of primary lysosomes
and membranes of other cell organelles.

Cytoskeleton
 It consists of actin and myosin filaments along with
microtubules and intermediate filaments. Their
function is to integrate mechanically various
cytoplasmic components of the cell
Golgi Apparatus (schematic diagram)
Golgi Apparatus
Cytoskeleton of a Cell