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NI
T-
A C T I O N S
2
C O N T R O L
Ba BASIC
sic AN D
co
R O L L E R S
ntr C O N T
ol
Ac
tio
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ntr By: Yatendra Kumar
oll
er
U Introductio
NI
n
A controller compares the actual value of
T-
output with the reference input,
2 determines the deviation, and produces a
Ba
control signal that will reduce the
sic
deviation to zero or to a small value.
co
nt
rol The manner in which the controller
Ac produces the control signal is called the
tio control action.
ns
an
d
Co
nt
rol
ler
U Classifications of Controllers
NI
T-
2
Ba Dis-continuous Continuous
sic
coON-OFF Controllers
nt Composite Action
rol Controllers
Two Position
Ac controller
tio Single Action P
ns Multi Position Controllers
an controller I
d Floating ModeP I D PD
Co controller
nt
rol PID
ler
U Related Terms and definitions
NI
T- Continuous Controller : Controller that
2 responds to continuous input variables are
Ba called continuous controller.
sic
co
Discrete Controller : Controller that
nt
rol responds to discrete signal are called
Ac discrete controllers.
tio
ns Process Equation: A process equation
an describes the mathematical relationship
d among the input and output variables.
Co
nt
rol
ler
U Related Terms and definitions
NI
Process Load: The term process load refers
T- to a set of parameters that influences or
2 bring changes in the process excluding the
Ba controlled variable.
sic Nominal Load: All the parameters have their
co normal or nominal value
nt
rol Transient : A temporary or sudden change
Ac or the variation of one of the variable is
tio called transient.
ns Process Lag : A process control loop responds to
an ensure that some finite time later, the variable
d returns to the set point value. Part of this time is
Co consumed by the process itself and that time is
nt called process lag.
rol
ler
U Related Terms and definations
NI
T- Control Lag : Control lag refers to the time for the
2 process control loop to make necessary adjustment
Ba to the final control element.
sic
co Cycling : Oscillation of error about the zero value.
nt This means the dynamic variable cycling above
rol and below the set point. For cycling we are
Ac interested in amplitude and period of oscillation.
tio
ns
Dead Time : Another time variable associated with
an
process control is a function of both process
d
Co control system and the process. This is the elapsed
nt time between the instant of deviation (error)
rol occurs and when the corrective action first occurs.
ler
U Discontinuous Controller Modes:
NI
T- In these controller modes the controller
2 output will be discontinuous with respect to
Ba controlled variable error.
sic
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U ON-OFF CONTROLLERS
NITwo Position Controller
T-
2 A two position controller is a
Ba device that has two operating
sic conditions:
co
Completely ON or
nt
rol Completely OFF.
Ac
tio
ns
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U ON-OFF CONTROLLERS
NI Fig.1 shows the input
2 Position to output,
Controller: characteristic
Operation
T- waveform for a two position controller that
switches from its "OFF" state to its "ON" state
2
when the measured variable increases above the
Ba
set point.
sic
co
Conversely, it switches from its "ON" state to
nt
its "OFF" state when the measured variable
rol
decreases below the set-point.
Ac
tio This device provides an output determined by
ns
whether the error signal is above or below the
an
set-point.
d
Co The magnitude of the error signal is above or
nt below the set-point. The magnitude of the error
rol signal past that point is of no concern to the
ler controller.
U ON-OFF CONTROLLERS
NI Two Position Controller: Operation
T-
2
Ba
sic
co
nt O
ON
rol U
T
Ac P
U
tio T
ns OFF
an
d
Co SET Measured Variable
nt POINT
2
Ba
sic
co
nt
rol
Ac
tio
In
Fig. 2.0 , assume a step change in deviation,
ns
an Let e = A [step change]
d P = KP. e ,
Co P = KP A
nt
rol
ler
U Contiguous Controller Mode
NI
Biggest question : why not
T-
Proportional controller?
2
Ba Offset or residual error :
sic
co
one of the main disadvantage of the P
nt control action is that it produces a
rol permanent residual error in the
Ac operating point of the controlled
tio
ns variable, when a process load change
an results in error. This residual error is
d known is OFFSET.
Co This error can be minimized by larger
nt
rol constant Kp which will also reduce the
ler proportion band
U Contiguous Controller Mode
NI
An offset error must occur if a proportional controller
T-
requires a new zero-error output following a load
2 change
Ba
sic
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U Contiguous Controller Mode
NI
T- Illustration of
2 OFFSET
consider first order process having process
Ba equation or transfer function
sic
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U Illustration of
NI OFFSET
T- • If we assume a sudden change in the input
2 causing a sudden error.
Ba • The proportional controller adjust the final
sic control element proportionately affecting
co
the dynamics of the process to bring back
nt
rol the output to the set point value.
Ac • This is possible if and only if the steady
tio state error is zero.
ns
an
d • From the statement of steady state error
Co
nt
rol
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U Illustration of
NI OFFSET
Let R(s) = [step change]
T-
2
Ba
sic
co
nt
rol
Ac • This steady state error is not zero but
tio inversely proportional to gain Kp.
ns • Thus this control action fails to make the
an error zero whenever the output changes due
d to change in input or load variable.
Co
• This is known as offset.
nt
rol
ler
U Illustration of
NI OFFSET
T- • From previous Eqn.
2 Offset
Ba
sic
co
nt
Both PB and Offset are inversely proportional to
rol
gain KP. To reduce the offset , KP should be
Ac
tio increased but it reduces the width of PB and the
ns control mode changes to simple ON and OFF mode.
an
d Hence offset constitutes the inherent disadvantage
Co of P controller mode.
nt
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U Illustration of
NI OFFSET
Electronic Proportional
T-
Controller
2
Ba
sic
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U Illustration of
NI OFFSET
Proportional Controller
T-
2
Ba
sic
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U Illustration of
NI OFFSET
Advantages of Proportional Controller
T-
2 Construction is simple
These controllers has high loop gain
Ba
It has steady state tracking accuracy
sic
It improves the disturbances signal reduction
co
It stabilizes the gain and makes the system
nt
more stable
rol Dis-advantages of Proportional Controller
Ac
tio It cannot accommodate load change without
ns sustained deviation.
an It produces the constant steady state error.
d For very large gain it leads to instability of the
Co system
nt It has a sluggish i.e. slow response for wide
rol proportional band.
ler It makes the system less sensitive to parameter
variation
U Contiguous Controller Mode
Integral Control
NI Action
T- This mode is an extension of floating control mode.
2 Unlike the previous discontinuous mode, the rate of
Ba change of controller output is not constant at ±KF
sic but is directly proportional to error.
co The analytic expression may be written as
nt
rol e
Ac
tio e (1)
ns where, KI is integral
an scaling
d From (1), the rate of controller o/p is proportional to the error.
Co Hence, when error comes, the controller responds by sending an
nt output at a rate that depends upon the size of the error and
rol
integral scaling KI
ler
U Contiguous Controller Mode
Integral Control
NI Action
T-
2
Ba
sic
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U Contiguous Controller Mode
Integral Control
NI Action
T- From Eqn (1), the rate of controller o/p is proportional to
2 the error. Hence, when error comes, the controller
Ba responds by sending an output at a rate that depends upon
sic the size of the error and integral scaling KI.
co
nt for particular error, the output will begin to increase at a
rol
rate KI %/ sec for every 1% of error.
Ac
tio
ns
(2)
an Where P(0) is initial value of controller o/p when error is zero
d
Co This integral scaling K
I is oftenally expressed in term of integral
nt time Ti
rol
ler KI = (3)
U Contiguous Controller Mode
Integral Control
NI Action
T- From Eqn (2) and (3)
2
Ba (4)
sic
co The unit of integral time is seconds or minutes
nt
rol The transfer function of the integral controller action is obtained
Ac by applying LT to Eqn (4)
tio
ns E(s) (5)
an
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U Contiguous Controller Mode
Integral Control
NI Action
T- The I controller adds the system deviation over time. It
2 integrates the system deviation.
Ba As a result, the rate of change (and not the value) of the
sic manipulated variable is proportional to the system
co deviation.
nt This is demonstrated by the step response of the I
rol controller: if the system deviation suddenly increases, the
Ac manipulated variable increases continuously.
tio The greater the system deviation, the steeper the increase in
ns the manipulated variable.
an For this reason the I controller is not suitable for totally
d
compensating remaining system deviation.
Co
If the system deviation is large, the manipulated variable
nt
rol changes quickly.
ler
U Contiguous Controller Mode
Integral Control
NI Action
T- As a result, the system deviation becomes smaller and the
2 manipulated variable changes more slowly until
Ba equilibrium is reached.
sic A pure I controller is unsuitable for most controlled
co systems, as it either causes oscillation of the closed loop or it
nt responds too slowly to system deviation in systems with a
rol long time response.
Ac In practice there are hardly any pure I controllers
tio
ns
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U Characteristics of Integral Control
NI Action
assume a step change in deviation,
T- Let e = A [step change]
2 From the fig. A
Ba t the main
sic disadvantage of
co integral action is
nt that, its response
rol to error is slow.
Ac But however, due
tio to its basic
ns nature of rate of
an change of it
d
output, it
Co
eliminates the
nt
rol error and brings
ler back the
Figure. A controlled
U Characteristics of Integral Control
NI Action
Since the rate of change of controller output can be reset at
T- any instant of time t by changing Ti.
2 This mode is oftenally referred as RESET CONTROLLER
Ba MODE. the integral time Ti is also known as RESET
sic TIME.
co
nt
rol Let see the reset effect of the integral controller
Ac action on error by taking a first order process
tio
ns
an
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Co
nt
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U Characteristics of Integral Control
NI Action
T-
2 Let R(s) = [step change]
Ba
sic
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U Characteristics of Integral Control
NI Action
T-
2 Thus it can be established that integral control action
Ba successfully eliminates the error, but in the process, it
sic response is sluggish.
co
nt
The integral action, due to its basic nature, might
rol
introduces oscillation in the controlled variable about the
Ac
tio
set point value, whenever it deviates from the set point
ns values.
an
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U Integral Control
NI Why not “Integral action” ????Action
T-
2 The problem for integral controller is that, if there is
Ba a zero change in slope, the controller output holds to
sic
co
a constant value. This is called integral windup. The
nt only way to cut the wind up is to put a negative error
rolIntegrator windup mechanism
Ac
tio Windup : When the controller reaches the actuator
ns
limit, then the actuator becomes saturated and the
an
d system effectively operates in open loop.
Co
nt
The integral term and the controller output may
rol become really large = large overshoot
ler
U Integral Control
Action
NI The controller signal remains saturated even if the
T- error begins to increase; hence, very bad transients
2
Ba
sic Example: When a car is on a steep hill, the throttle
co saturates when the cruise control attempts to
nt maintain speed
rol
Ac
tio
How to avoid integrator windup?
ns
an There are many ways to avoid integral windup. One
d method is demonstrated in Fig. B
Co
nt
rol
ler
U Integral Control
NI Action
T-
2
Ba
sic
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U Integral Control
Action
NI This kind of system has an extra feedback path
T- that is generated by measuring the actual
2 actuator output, or the output of a model of the
Ba
saturating actuator.
sic
co
nt This form an error signal ( es) as the difference
rol between the output of the controller (v) and
Ac
tio output of actuator (u).
ns i.e es = u – v
an
d
Co this error signal is feedback to the input of
nt
rol
the integrator through gain Kt.
ler
U Integral Control
NI Action
This signal es is zero, when there is no saturation,
T-
2 consequently there is no effect of extra feedback
Ba on the system.
sic
co when the actuator is saturated, consequently the
nt error signal (es) is feedback to the integrator in
rol such a way that es goes toward zero. This implies
Ac
tio that controller output is kept close to the
ns saturation limit.
an The controller output will then change as soon as
d
Co the error changes sign and integral windup is
nt avoided.
rol
ler
U Integral Control
Action
NI Advantages of Integral Controller
T- It reduces steady state error i.e. effect of offset.
2 It provides high controlled output at a particular
Ba
sic time after the error generated is for high value of
co KI.
nt It responds to the continued existence of
rol
Ac deviation.
tio Dis-advantages of Integral Controller
ns
It is never used alone.
an
d It makes the system unstable for oscillatory
Co response.
nt It introduces hunting in the system response
rol
ler
about its steady state condition.
U Integral Control
Electronic Integral Controller Action
NI
T-
2
Ba
sic
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U Integral Control
NI Action
T-
2
Ba
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U Derivative Control
NI Derivative Control Action Action
T- In a derivative control mode, the controller
2 output is proportional to the derivative of the
Ba error. So the output can be expressed as
sic
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U Derivative Control
Action
NI Characteristics of Derivative Control Action
T-
2 If error is zero or the error is constant in time,
Ba the mode provides no output.
sic
co If there is an error, for every 1% -per-second
nt
rol rate of change of error, the mode contributes an
Ac output of KD percent.
tio
ns For direct action, a positive rate of change of
an
d error produces a positive derivative mode
Co output.
nt
rol
ler
U Derivative Control
Why not “ Derivative” ? Action
NI
T-
2 A step change in set point causes a false step
Ba error for the derivative controller.
sic
co This step change causes the derivative part of the
nt
rol controller to saturate the overall controller
Ac output. This ultimately forces the final control
tio element to go to hard Off mode. This is called
ns
derivative overrun.
an
d
Co The solution to this problem is to feed the
nt derivative controller with process variable (PV)
rol
ler
instead of error
U Derivative Control
NI Action
T- Examines the rate of change of the output of the
2 process
Ba The faster the change, the stronger the action
sic The derivative of the output (slope) is multiplied
co by a constant, Kd
nt
rol
Ac
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U Derivative Control
Action
NI Differential control is insensitive to slow changes
T- If the variable is parallel to the set point, no
2 change is made (slope = 0)
Ba
sic
co
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rol
Ac
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an Differential control is very useful when
d combined with P and I control
Co
nt
PID control
rol
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U Derivative Control
NI Advantages of Derivative Action
Controller
T-
2 It can overcome the overshoot and
Ba severe cycling.
sic It has a rapid response to counter the
co
nt
effect of rapidly changing errors.
rol It responds to the changes of the
Ac speed and direction to the deviation.
tio It does not affect the steady state
ns
an error directly, but anticipates the
d error.
Co It increases the stability of the
nt system by initiating an early
rol
ler corrective action
U Derivative Control
NI Action
Dis-advantages of Derivative
T- Controller
2 It cannot be used alone, since it
Ba cannot give any output for zero or
sic
co constant error.
nt It is ineffective for slowly changing
rol
Ac error and hence causes the drift.
tio It amplifies the noise signal and
ns
an causes a saturation effect on the
d system.
Co
nt
It does not eliminate the steady
rol state error. (offset)
ler
U Derivative Control
NI Action
T-
2
Ba
sic
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U Derivative Control
NI Action
T-
2
Ba
sic
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Co
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U Derivative Control
NI Action
T-
2 Q. Derivative control action with a gain
Ba
sic
of KD = 0.04% / (%/min) is needed to
co control flow through a pipe. The flow
nt surges with a minimum period of 2.2 s.
rol
Ac
The input signal has a range of 0.4 to
tio 2.0 V, and the output varies from 0.0 to
ns 5.0 V. Develop the op amp derivative
an action circuit.
d
Co
nt
rol
ler
U Derivative Control
NI Solution: Action
T- First we find the appropriate
2
Ba
circuit gain, G D . The derivative gain
sic should first be converted to the units of
co seconds:
nt
rol
Ac
tio =
ns
an
d This result says that for every 1% / s rate of
Co change of input, the output should change by
nt 2.4%.
rol
ler
U Derivative Control
NI Action
So, 1% / s of the input is
T- (0.01)(1.6 V/ s) =
2 0.016 V/ s.
Ba Then 2.4% of the output is simply
sic (0.024)(5) = 0.12V.
co So, GD = (0.12 V / 0.016 V / s) = 7.5 s = R 2 C
nt
rol Le t C = 20 µF, R 2=375 kΩ
Ac To find, we need the maximum frequency. If the
tio minimum period is 2.2 s, then the maximum
ns frequency is 1/2.2s = 0.45Hz.
an
From the design guidelines, we set
d
Co
2 π fmax R1 C =0.1 = 2 π (0.45) R1 20
nt µFWe can now solve for
rol
ler R1≈1800 Ω
U composite Controllers
NI Action
T-
2
Ba
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