MODULE 4

Terminals on an Op Amp
Positive power supply
(Positive rail)

Non-inverting
Input terminal

Output terminal

Inverting input
terminal

Negative power supply

(Negative rail)
Voltage Transfer Characteristic

Range where
we operate
the op amp as
an amplifier.

vd
The ideal op-amp
• Infinite voltage gain
• a voltage difference at the two inputs is magnified infinitely
• in truth, something like 200,000
• means difference between + terminal and  terminal is amplified by 200,000!
• Infinite input impedance
• no current flows into inputs
• in truth, about 1012  for FET input op-amps
• Zero output impedance
• rock-solid independent of load
• roughly true up to current maximum (usually 5–25 mA)
• Infinitely fast (infinite bandwidth)
• in truth, limited to few MHz range
• slew rate limited to 0.5–20 V/s
Op-amp without feedback
• The internal op-amp formula is:
Vout = gain(V+  V)
• So if V+ is greater than V, the output goes positive
• If V is greater than V+, the output goes negative
V 
Vout
V+ +
Operational Amplifers

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are very high gain dc coupled amplifiers

with differential inputs. One of the inputs is called the inverting input ();
the other is called the noninverting input. Usually there is a single output.

Most op-amps operate from plus and minus +V

supply voltages, which may or may not be
–
shown on the schematic symbol.
+

8 –V
20 1 1
8 8
1 1
DIP DIP SMT SMT
 The Ideal Op-Amp

The ideal op-amp has characteristics that simplify analysis of op-amp

circuits. Ideally, op-amps have infinite voltage gain, infinite bandwidth, and
infinite input impedance. In addition, the ideal op-amp has zero output
impedance.

Vin Zin = ‘ AvVin Vout

Zout = 0
Av = ‘

+
 The Practical Op-Amp

Practical op-amps have characteristics that often can be treated as ideal for
certain situations, but can never actually attain ideal characteristics. In addition
to finite gain, bandwidth, and input impedance, they have other limitations.

Vin Zin AvVin Vout

Zout

+
Block Diagram

Internally, the typical op-amp has a differential input, a voltage amplifier,

and a push-pull output.
The differential amplifier amplifies the difference in the two inputs.

+
Push-pull
Differential Voltage
amplifier
Vin amplifier amplifier(s) Vout
output
– input stage gain stage
stage
Signal modes

The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-

mode or in common-mode.
Vin
Differential-mode signals are –

Vout
applied either as single-ended
+
(one side on ground) or
double-ended (opposite phases –
Vin
on the inputs). Vout
+

Differential signals
Signal modes

The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-

mode or in common-mode.
Vin
Common-mode signals are
applied to both sides with the –
same phase on both. Vout
+
Usually, common-mode signals Vin
are from unwanted sources, and –

affect both inputs in the same Vout

way. The result is that they are +
essentially cancelled at the Vin
output. Common-mode
signals
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

The ability of an amplifier to amplify differential signals and reject

common-mode signals is called the common-mode rejection ratio
(CMRR).

Aol
CMRR is defined as CMRR =
Acm
where Aol is the open-loop differential-gain
and Acm is the common-mode gain.
�Aol �
CMRR can also be expressed in decibels as CMRR = 20 log � �
�Acm �
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

What is CMRR in decibels for a typical 741C op-amp?

The typical open-loop differential gain for the 741C is 200,000 and the
typical common-mode gain is 6.3.

�Aol �
CMRR = 20 log � �
�Acm �
200, 000
= 20 log = 90 dB
6.3

(The minimum specified CMRR is 70 dB.)

 Voltage and Current Parameters

VO(p-p): The maximum output voltage swing is determined by the op-amp and
the power supply voltages

VOS: The input offset voltage is the differential dc voltage required

between the inputs to force the output to zero volts

IBIAS: The input bias current is the average of I1 + I 2

I BIAS =
the two dc currents required to bias the 2
differential amplifier

IOS: The input offset current is the difference

I OS = I1  I 2
between the two dc bias currents
 Impedance Parameters

ZIN(d) : The differential input impedance –

is the total resistance between the inputs ZIN(d)

ZIN(cm) : The common-mode input ZIN(cm)

impedance is the resistance between

+
each input and ground

–
Zout: The output impedance is the Zout

resistance viewed from the output of the +

circuit.
 Other Parameters

Slew rate: The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of the output
voltage in response to a step input voltage
DVout
Slew Rate =
Dt
Determine the slew rate for the output Vout (V)
response to a step input.
13
12

DVout ( +12 V )  ( 12 V )

Slew Rate = = 0 t
Dt 4.0 μs
–12
= 6 V/s –13
4.0 s
Negative Feedback

Negative feedback is the process of returning a portion of the output signal to

the input with a phase angle that opposes the input signal.

The advantage of negative Vin +

Vout
feedback is that precise
Vf –
values of amplifier gain can Internal inversion makes Vf
be set. In addition, 180° out of phase with Vin.

bandwidth and input and Negative

feedback
circuit
output impedances can be
controlled.
Ideal Op Amp with Negative Feedback

Golden Rules of Op Amps:

1.The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the

voltage difference between the inputs zero.

2.The inputs draw no current.

 Noninverting Amplifier

A noninverting amplifier is a configuration in which the signal is on the

noninverting input and a portion of the output is returned to the inverting
input.

Feedback forces Vf to be equal

to Vin, hence Vin is across Ri.
+
With basic algebra, you can
Vout
show that the closed-loop gain Vin –
of the noninverting amplifier is Rf
Vf Feedback
circuit
Ri
Rf
Acl (NI) = 1 +
Ri
Noninverting Amplifier
Analysis Using the Ideal OP AMP
“Virtual
Short
v p = vg
Rs
vn = v p = vg = vo
Rs + R f
Rs + R f
vo = vg
Rs
� Rf �
vo = �
1+ vg
�
� Rs �
 Noninverting Amplifier

Determine the gain of the noninverting amplifier shown.

Rf
Acl (NI) = 1 +
Ri
Vin +
82 k
= 1+ Vout
3.3 k – Rf
82 k

= 25.8 Ri
3.3 k
 Noninverting Amplifier

A special case of the inverting amplifier is when Rf =0 and Ri = ∞. This forms

a voltage follower or unity gain buffer with a gain of 1.

The input impedance of Vin ++

the voltage follower is Vout
out

very high, producing an – Rf

82 k
excellent circuit for
isolating one circuit from Ri
another, which avoids 3.3 k
"loading" effects.
 Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the noninverting input

is grounded and the signal is applied through a resistor to the inverting
input.

Feedback forces the inputs to

be nearly identical; hence the
Rf
inverting input is very close to
0 V. The closed-loop gain of
the inverting amplifier is Ri
–

Rf Vout
Acl (I) =  Vin +
Ri

0 V (virtual ground)
 Inverting Amplifier

Determine the gain of the inverting amplifier shown.

Rf
Acl (I) = 
Ri Rf

82 k
82 k
= Ri
3.3 k –
3.3 k
Vout
Vin +
= 24.8

The minus sign

indicates inversion.
Inverting Amplifier

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 28

Analysis Using the Ideal OP AMP

“Virtual”
ground
i +i =i
s f n
v =v =0
n p
v
i = s
s R
s
v
i = o
f R
f

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 29

Analysis Using the Ideal OP AMP

in = 0
i f = is
vo vs
=
GND

Rf Rs
Rf
vo =  vs
Rs
Ideal Op Amp
Ideal Op-Amp Typical Op-Amp

Input Resistance infinity 106  (bipolar)

109  - 1012  (FET)
Input Current 0 10-12 – 10-8 A
Output Resistance 0 100 – 1000 
Operational Gain infinity 105 - 109
Common Mode Gain 0 10-5
Bandwidth infinity Attenuates and phases at high
frequencies (depends on slew
rate)

Temperature independent Bandwidth and gain

 Comparator

V1
Vout
V2

www.allaboutcircuits.com

Uses: Low-voltage alarms,

night light controller
Non-ideal Op Amp
• Output voltage is limited by supply voltage(s)
• Finite gain (~105)
• Limited frequency response
• Finite input resistance (not infinite)
• Finite output resistance (not zero)
slew rate = dv0 (t ) dtMAX
• Finite slew rate
• Input bias currents
• Input bias current offset
• Input offset voltage
• Finite common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
Boolean Algebra
• VERY nice machinery used to manipulate (simplify) Boolean functions
• George Boole (1815-1864): “An investigation of the laws of thought”
• Terminology:
• Literal: A variable or its complement
• Product term: literals connected by •
• Sum term: literals connected by +

6/5/19 Boolean Algebra PJF - 34

Digital Systems
Digital vs. Analog Waveforms

+5 +5

1 0 1
V V
Time Time

–5 –5

Digital: Analog:
only assumes discrete values values vary over a broad range
continuously

EECS 303 Lecture 1 35

• Basic Digital Concepts By converting continuous analog signals into a finite number of
discrete states, a process called digitization, then to the extent that the states are sufficiently
well separated so that noise does create errors, the resulting digital signals allow the
following (slightly idealized)
• storage over arbitrary periods of time
• flawless retrieval and reproduction of the stored information
• flawless transmission of the information

• The drawback to digitization is that a single analog signal (e.g. a voltage which is a function of
time, like a stereo signal) needs many discrete states, or bits, in order to give a satisfactory
reproduction.

• For example, it requires a minimum of 10 bits to determine a voltage at any given time to an
accuracy of ≈ 0.1%. For transmission, one now requires 10 lines instead of the one original
analog line.
• The explosion in digital techniques and technology has been made possible by the
incredible increase in the density of digital circuitry, its robust performance, its
relatively low cost, and its speed.

• The requirement of using many bits in reproduction is no longer an issue: The

more the better.

• This circuitry is based upon the transistor, which can be operated as a switch with
two states. Hence, the digital information is intrinsically binary. So in practice, the
terms digital and binary are used interchangeably. In the following sections we
summarize some conventions for defining the binary states and for doing binary
arithmetic.
Advantages of Digital Systems
• Digital systems are easier to design since there are only two voltage
levels HIGH and LOW
• Digital systems are less affected by noise
• Digital systems information storage are easy.
• Digital systems are much more accurate and precise than analog
systems.
Digitization
Digital Logic state
• All digital logic ,only two voltage levels or states are allowed.
• These states are generally referred to as logic 1 or logic 0,high or low, true or
false.
• They are represented in Boolean algebra and truth table by the number 1 or
0.
• 0-> 0V (LOW)
• 1-> +5V (HIGH)
• Logic Gate: The most basic element of digital circuits
• Designed with active devices such as diodes and transistors and passive
components such as resistors which consists of one or more inputs and one
output performing very basic logic operation.
Boolean Algebra Properties
Let X: boolean variable, 0,1: constants

1. X + 0 = X -- Zero Axiom
2. X • 1 = X -- Unit Axiom
3. X + 1 = 1 -- Unit Property
4. X • 0 = 0 -- Zero Property

6/5/19 Boolean Algebra PJF - 42

Boolean Algebra Properties (cont.)
Let X: boolean variable, 0,1: constants

5. X + X = X -- Idepotence
6. X • X = X -- Idepotence
7. X + X’ = 1 -- Complement
8. X • X’ = 0 -- Complement
9. (X’)’ = X -- Involution

6/5/19 Boolean Algebra PJF - 43

Duality
• The dual of an expression is obtained by exchanging
(• and +), and (1 and 0) in it, provided that the
precedence of operations is not changed.
• Cannot exchange x with x’
• Example:
• Find H(x,y,z), the dual of F(x,y,z) = x’yz’ + x’y’z
• H = (x’+y+z’) (x’+y’+ z)

6/5/19 Boolean Algebra PJF - 44

Duality (cont’d)
With respect to duality, Identities 1 – 8 have the
following relationship:

1. X+0=X 2. X • 1 = X (dual of 1)
3. X+1 =1 4. X • 0 = 0 (dual of 3)
5. X+X=X 6. X • X = X (dual of 5)
7. X + X’ = 1 8. X • X’ = 0 (dual of 8)

6/5/19 Boolean Algebra PJF - 45

More Boolean Algebra Properties
Let X,Y, and Z: boolean variables

10. X+Y=Y+X 11. X•Y=Y•X -- Commutative

12. X + (Y+Z) = (X+Y) + Z 13. X•(Y•Z) = (X•Y)•Z -- Associative
14. X•(Y+Z) = X•Y + X•Z 15. X+(Y•Z) = (X+Y) • (X+Z)
-- Distributive
16. (X + Y)’ = X’ • Y’ 17. (X • Y)’ = X’ + Y’ -- DeMorgan’s
In general,
( X1 + X2 + … + Xn )’ = X1’•X2’ • … •Xn’, and
( X1•X2•… •Xn )’ = X1’ + X2’ + … + Xn’

6/5/19 Boolean Algebra PJF - 46

 Absorption Property
1. x + x•y = x
2. x•(x+y) = x (dual)
• Proof:
x + x•y = x•1 + x•y
= x•(1+y)
= x•1
=x
QED (2 true by duality, why?)

6/5/19 Boolean Algebra PJF - 47

 Power of Duality
x + x•y = x is true, so (x + x•y)’=x’
(x + x•y)’=x’•(x’+y’)
x’•(x’+y’) =x’
Let X=x’, Y=y’
X•(X+Y) =X, which is the dual of x + x•y = x.
The above process can be applied to any formula. So if a
formula is valid, then its dual must also be valid.
Proving one formula also proves its dual.

6/5/19 Boolean Algebra PJF - 48

Consensus Theorem
1.xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z
2.(x+y)•(x’+z)•(y+z) = (x+y)•(x’+z) -- (dual)
• Proof:
xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z + (x+x’)yz
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
= (xy + xyz) + (x’z + x’zy)
= xy + x’z
QED (2 true by duality).

6/5/19 Boolean Algebra PJF - 49

AND
In order for current to flow, both switches must
be closed
• Logic notation AB = C
(Sometimes AB = C)

A B C
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
OR
Current flows if either switch is closed
• Logic notation A + B = C

A B C
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Properties of AND and OR
• Commutation
oA + B = B + A
oA  B = B  A

Same as

Same as
Commutation Circuit

AB BA

A+B B+A
Properties of AND and OR
• Associative Property
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C
Properties of AND and OR
Distributive Property
A + B  C = (A + B)  (A + C)
A+BC
A B C Q
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Distributive Property
(A + B)  (A + C)

A B C Q
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Binary Addition

A B S C(arry)
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1

Notice that the carry results are the same as AND

C=AB
Inversion (NOT)
A Q

0 1
Logic: Q=A
1 0
Exclusive OR (XOR)

Either A or B, but not both

A B S
This is sometimes called the
inequality detector, because the 0 0 0
result will be 0 when the inputs are the 1 0 1
same and 1 when they are different.
0 1 1
The truth table is the same as for
1 1 0
S on Binary Addition. S = A  B
Getting the XOR
Two ways of getting S = 1 A B S
0 0 0
A  B or A  B
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
Circuit for XOR

A  B = AB + AB
Accumulating our results: Binary addition is the
result of XOR plus AND
NAND (NOT AND)

A B Q
Q = AB 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NAND Gate
• Known as a “universal” gate because ANY digital
circuit can be implemented with NAND gates alone.
• To prove the above, it suffices to show that AND, OR,
and NOT can be implemented using NAND gates only.

6/5/19 Boolean Algebra PJF - 63

NAND Gate Emulation
F = (X•X)’ X F = X’
X
= X’+X’
= X’

X X F X•Y
F = ((X•Y)’)’
Y Y
= (X’+Y’)’
= X’’•Y’’
= X•Y
X X
F = (X’•Y’)’ F = X+Y
= X’’+Y’’
Y Y
= X+Y

6/5/19 Boolean Algebra PJF - 64

NOR (NOT OR)

A B Q
Q=A+B 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
NOR Gate
• Also a “universal” gate because ANY digital circuit can
be implemented with NOR gates alone.
• This can be similarly proven as with the NAND gate.
DeMorgan’s Theorem

A NAND gate is equivalent to an inversion followed by an OR

A NOR gate is equivalent to an inversion followed by and AND

DeMorgan Truth Table
A B
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
NAND NOR
Exclusive NOR

A B Q
Q = AB
0 0 1
0 1 0
Equality Detector
1 0 0
1 1 1
XOR and XNOR X Y F = XY
XOR: “not-equal” gate 0 0 0

X F 0 1 1
1 0 1
Y
1 1 0

X Y F = XY
XNOR: “equal” gate 0 0 1
0 1 0
X F
1 0 0
Y 1 1 1
Summary
Summary for all 2-input gates

Inputs Output of each gate

A B AND NAND OR NOR XOR XNOR

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM AND ITS
ELEMENTS
• A measurement system may be defined as a systematic arrangement
for the measurement or determination of an unknown quantity and
analysis of instrumentation. The generalised measurement system
and its different components/elements are shown in figure
Digital Multimeters (DMMs)
 Digital multimeters
are generally
easier to use.

 They eliminate the

human error that often
occurs in reading
different scales on an
analog meter with a
pointer.

Fig: Typical digital multimeter (DMM).

digital multimeter
• A digital multimeter is an electronic instrument which can measure very precisely the dc and ac
voltage, current (dc and ac)and resistance.
• All quantities other than dc voltage is first converted into an equivalent dc voltage by some
device and then measured with the help of digital voltmeter.
• For measurement of ac voltage, the input voltage, is fed through a calibrated, compensated
attenuator, to a precision full-wave rectifier circuit followed by a ripple reduction filter. The
resulting dc is fed to an Analog Digital Converter (ADC) and the subsequent display system.
• Many manufacturers provide the same attenuator for both ac and dc measurements.
• For current measurement, the drop across an internal calibrated shunt is measured
directly by the ADC in the ‘dc current mode’, and after ac to dc conversion in the ‘ac
current mode’. This drop is often in the range of 200 mV (corresponding to full scale).
Digital Multimeter
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
The input signal is applied to the amplifier and attenuator section.

Ø The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuitry as used in the conventional
oscilloscopes.

Ø The attenuated signal is then applied to the vertical amplifier.

Ø To digitize the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used.

Ø The output of the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section.

Ø The successive approximation type of A/D converter is most oftenly used in the digital storage
oscilloscopes.

Ø The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration & the waveform to be
recorded.

Ø Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitizes it.

Ø The signal is then captured in the memory.

Ø Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as memory can be readout without
being erased.
Advantages

i) It is easier to operate and has more capability.

ii) The storage time is infinite.

iii) The display flexibility is available. The number of traces that can be stored and recalled depends on the size of the memory.

iv) The cursor measurement is possible.

v) The characters can be displayed on screen along with the waveform which can indicate waveform information such as minimum, maximum,
frequency, amplitude etc.

vi) The X-Y plots, B-H curve, P-V diagrams can be displayed.

vii) The pretrigger viewing feature allows to display the waveform before trigger pulse.

viii) Keeping the records is possible by transmitting the data to computer system where the further processing is possible

ix) Signal processing is possible which includes translating the raw data into finished information e.g. computing parameters of a captured signal like
r.m.s. value, energy stored etc.
Function Generator
• The block diagram of a function generator is given in the figure. In this instrument, the frequency is controlled
by varying the magnitude of the current that drives the integrator. This instrument provides different types of
waveforms (such as sinusoidal, triangular and square waves) as its output signal with a frequency range of 0.01
Hz to 100 kHz.
• The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current supply sources. Current supply source 1 supplies a
constant current to the integrator whose output voltage rises linearly with time. An increase or decrease in the
current increases or reduces the slope of the output voltage and thus controls the frequency.
• The voltage comparator multivibrator changes state at a predetermined maximum level, of the integrator output
voltage. This change cuts-off the current supply from supply source 1 and switches to the supply source 2. The
current supply source 2 supplies a reverse current to the integrator so that its output drops linearly with time.
When the output attains a predetermined level, the voltage comparator again changes state and switches on to
the current supply source. The output of the integrator is a triangular wave whose frequency depends on the
current supplied by the constant current supply sources. The comparator output provides a square wave of the
same frequency as output. The resistance diode network changes the slope of the triangular wave as its
amplitude changes and produces a sinusoidal wave with less than 1% distortion.