 Not only is education in the midst of a

process of change and renewal, but the whole

education system is also in the process of
change and renewal.
 Renewal in primary and secondary education
occurs regularly in respect of syllabi,
apparatus (equipment, machinery) ,
techniques, buildings and administrative
matters.
 The kind of thinking, in which it is assumed
that there is a direct relationship between a
cause (new information about Curriculum
2005) and an effect (changed teaching
practice), is called linear (or mechanistic)
thinking.
 External change factors: Those that come from
outside the school e.g. an external pressure for
change.
 Macro (countrywide) policies. For example, the
Schools Act requires that all schools must
establish governing bodies, and that parents
have the greatest representation. In secondary
schools, learners also need to be represented.
 externally-driven change is often initiated to
meet some rather broad and often abstract-
sounding policy
 Though the change may be very important,
the reasons why it needs to be implemented
are not always clear to teachers in schools. As
a consequence, it is far more likely to be
rejected, or only implemented at an
appearance level rather than a real level.
 The initiators of macro changes – like
national departments of education – are more
concerned with the symbols rather than the
substance of change.
Internal change factors.
 In other situations, schools may decide to
change certain aspects because they are
facing internal problems. E.g. a school may
find that many of its learners are struggling
to read or learners are bringing knives and
guns to school which is making teaching (and
life generally) more difficult (and unpleasant)
for teachers and the other learners.
Value barriers
Value barriers exist because individuals and groups have different ways of
seeing
things. This means that two people can look at the same innovation in a
completely different light. One person will think it is a good idea, and
another person will think it is the wrong way to go.
All changes – and responses to changes – come from an underlying value
perspective. Think about the introduction of Model C schools in South
Africa in the early 1990s. Some people welcomed the change, others did
not. They were seeing it from their own understanding of what was
important.
Power barriers
Significant innovations usually involve a redistribution of resources and
changes of authority structures in the system. There is often resistance
when power changes hands. This question is also related to who has the
power to make the decisions about change. Often we want to resist
change if we are told that we must change by someone who has more
power than we do.
Practical barriers
One of the biggest problems with change is to bridge the gap between the
idea or plan and the implementation of that plan in the school or the
classroom.
There are a number of key factors that are important to help the
implementation of change. Per Dalin lists five main factors:
Time: On a macro level, this means allowing many years for the
innovation to happen. It took Britain 25 years to usher in the large-
scale reform of introducing comprehensive schools. While change
may not always take this long, we still need to allow time for it. The
South African Ministry of Education has said that the phasing in of a
new curriculum will take up to ten years (if not longer). On a micro
level, teachers in schools need time to change also. If they need to
implement a new curriculum, they need time to attend staff
development courses, time and space to try out new teaching
methods, and time to discuss issues with their colleagues. Too
often, schools expect teachers to try new things on top of a heavy
workload.
Knowledge: Schools need to have knowledge about the innovation they are
trying to adopt, as well as about how change happens. For example,
teachers need to know why they should change their teaching methods,
as well as how they should do so.
Organizational development: For implementation to be successful, schools
need to develop their capacity to manage the process. There must be
support for teachers, both in terms of resources and skills. When the
roles in an organization change, as often happens in a change process,
this can create interpersonal conflicts.
Specific objectives: If innovation is going to work, everyone involved needs
to know what is happening and why. One of the problems with
implementing external policies like the new curriculum, or introducing
representative governing bodies, is that schools simply do not have the
information they need, or the information they do have is too vague.
Resources: Change requires resources. It is difficult for teachers to change
their teaching styles if there is not enough learning material available to
support this.
 Psychological barriers
 Experience shows that people find it difficult to change.
 We tend to continue doing things that we are familiar
with.
 Familiarity provides security, and it is difficult to enter into
the unknown.
 To be willing to change, we need to believe that the
change is worthwhile.
 We need to see some meaning and advantage for
ourselves in the change.
 This does not necessarily mean we get money for it! A
change could be worthwhile, for instance, if it improves
our working conditions, if it will lessen our workload, if it
reduces conflict, or if it makes our teaching more
interesting.
There are two perspectives on resistance to
change, namely:
◦ Revolutionary (Change enforced from below)
◦ Reactionary perspective (Reaction to change enforces
from above)
Revolutionary resistance
 From a revolutionary point of view, resistance to
change is seen as a logical necessity in society
(education) to change existing (and oppressive)
systems and structures.

 In an educational context the use of resistance to change is related to
moral and political injustice. That is why they see resistance as a
positive means of bringing about a critical movement against a
dominant ideology.
Resistance is therefore an aid to (revolutionary change).
Reactionary resistance
 Reactionary resistance is also seen as a logical necessity in
an organisation. This reaction arises when the existing
system, custom, and practices are changed.
 This view sees resistance to change as a reaction to and a
result of change that must be neutralised and avoided.
 In a reactionary context, the teachers’ reaction to change can
be passive (e.g psychological resistance, negative
perceptions and attitudes) or active and aggressive (e.g
opposing views, demonstrations, strikes and boycotts)
Very little information is available on the extent of resistance to change in
education. Only a few studies could be traced, namely those of Trump
(1987) and of Rusch and Perry (1993).
 From Trump’s study carried out, in secondary schools in Ohio (USA) in
secondary schools, it appeared that resistance to new ideas was the
second most important factor experienced by school principals when
implementing new teaching programmes.
Trump found that principals of secondary schools experience problems in
implementing renewal particularly in two areas:
 The time allocated for implementation and teachers’ resistance to new
ideas.
 In respect of resistance to change, the school principals indicated that
resistance to change had been the main reason that had prevented them
from implementing change.
 Research therefore shows that resistance to change is an important
factor for school principals to consider when implementing change.
 It would appear that this resistance stems from a variety of factors.
No change occurs without sacrifice and adjustment. Anyone who initiates change
must therefore take particular account of the factors that give rise to resistance to
change.
Loss of the familiar and reliable
As soon as there is a deviation from the familiar situation or existing practices are
discontinued, a feeling of insecurity is experienced that could give rise to
resistance to change.
The loss of personal choice and values
 Teachers usually protect their own interests because in essence, humans are self-
centred beings.
Possible loss of authority
 Change can affect an individual’s position of authority. Unwillingness to surrender
the status quo is usually a manifestation of an individuals’ fear of losing his or her
existing status and prestige.
Not understanding the reasons for change
 Misunderstanding or insufficient information are often the cause of not being able
to see or hear explanations about the significance of change.

Meaningless change
 If changes are not meaningful, they are not considered
necessary.
Fear of change
 Teachers have limited ability to change, often because they feel
threatened. Teachers may feel that they have developed a stake
in the status quo and then view change as a vote of no
confidence in their work.
Competition
 Teachers are usually unwilling to accept another individual’s
ideas in place of their own.
A low tolerance for change
 Teachers often do understand the necessity for change, but are
emotionally unequipped to assimilate or implement it.
Various perceptions in respect of change
 Teachers may argue that their work is not good enough and that
their promotion or posts could be in jeorpady.
Non-involvement
 Individuals may be involved in change but not in the planning of
the change. Because the school is a composite structure, all
interested parties should be involved in the planning and
implementation of change.
Pressure
 Too much pressure at work is usually associated with change
because new documents and regulations must be compiled.
Habit and dependence
 The status quo is often good only because teachers have become
accustomed to it and feel dependent on the familiar. That is why
an individual tends to act the way he or she has always acted
instead of changing or accepting change.
Inadequate feedback
 Lack of effective evaluation methods sometimes makes it
difficult to determine the relationship between the actual and the
planned objectives.

Lack of skills
 Teachers often offer to change due to the nature of
the change, rather than because they lack the
necessary skills to handle both resistance and
change.
Infrastructural support and communication
 As soon as the teacher lacks formal support for the
implementation of change resistance can be
expected.




 Psychological resistance to change has its roots in the personality of the
teacher.
The first psychological reason for resistance to change is the teachers’
perception of the status quo. A persons’ perception of the results of
change is the most important reason for resistance to change.
Another psychological reason for resistance to change is homeostasis.
Homeostasis is the tendency to try and maintain a balance at all times.
 As soon as an acceptable level of fulfilment and enthusiasm has been
reached, the majority of teachers would rather maintain the status quo.
If the level of fulfilment is disrupted, the natural reaction is resistance.
A further psychological reaction to change is the teachers’ natural need to
be acceptable to others. If a change does take place, a fear of
unacceptability, of no longer being popular with learners and / or
colleagues may develop.
The professional training of teachers is such that they are bound to act and
present a class in a certain established way. Teachers need proof that
their existing practice does not work before they will consider change,
otherwise they automatically display resistance to change.
Personality factors are also important with regard to
resistance to change. Teachers whose motivation for
achievement and work is low will not be receptive to
any form of change.
 These individuals are often dogmatic (rigid) in
thought and action, display a lack of curiosity or
motivation for further studies or professional
development, and are limited in their critical
evaluation of existing practices.
A further psychological reason for resistance to change
is that teachers generally prefer a familiar
environment with little interference and change.
 Familiar environments, habits or practices usually
provide trust and security, whereas change may
contribute to a lack of self-confidence.
Reaction Phase 1: Shock
 An individual’s first and natural reaction to change is rejection of
new ideas or change, dismay, negation, or refusal and an
intensely experienced perception of interference.
Reaction Phase 2: Counter-reaction
 This may manifest in various ways. There could be active
demonstration or immediate rejection of change. Another
counter reaction could be of a passive nature, such as
withdrawal, retraction or adoption of a martyred attitude – all
part of an individual’s natural defence mechanisms.
Reaction Phase 3: Grouping
 Individuals form groups – those in favour and those against
change. The opponents of change try to recruit support for their
viewpoint by discussing their negative feelings and reasons with
one another to discredit supporters of change.

Reaction Phase 4: Anxiety
 Anxiety that a change is brought about irrespective of peoples reactions.
That is why either attention is deflected from the problem (change) or
individuals are identified and accused of having caused the anxiety.
Reaction Phase 5: Rationalisation
 A transfer of emphasis from the past to the future occurs during this
phase. There is gradual realisation that change is irreversible and
necessary.
Reaction Phase 6: Acceptance
 Acceptance because new systems, procedures, practices seldom run
smoothly when they are first implemented, there is always a phase of
assimilation and adjustment. New situations or customs are tested and
frustrations may occur if success is not achieved.
Reaction Phase 7: Profundity/ Internalising
 The dimension of the change is now known. New relations, procedures
and practices have already been tested. In this way insight is gained into
the new and changed working situation.
School principals are sometimes unaware of the various methods that can
be used to decrease resistance to change, and their advantages and
disadvantages.

The following are a few of the utmost important methods at the school
principals’ disposal for managing resistance change:
Education and communication
 A common method of reducing resistance to change is to inform and
educate the teachers involved as early as possible about the necessity
for and logic of the change. This method can comprise individual
discussions, group discussions, memoranda and reports.
Participation and involvement
 People enjoy making their own decisions. The implication of this is that
teachers should be involved in the change as soon as possible so that
they accept responsibility for it.
Facilitation and support
 As an agent of change, the school principal can apply a series of support
techniques to diminish resistance to change.

Examples of these are: the provision of re-educational and emotional support
programmes, understanding and providing an opportunity for those involved to
talk while the principal listens attentively.
Negotiation and agreement
 Another method that the school principal can employ to deal with potential
resistance to change, is to exchange something of value for reduced resistance.
Persuasion and influence
 When change is urgent and the school principal has a great deal of influence,
persuasion and influence can be used.
 The method can be used constructively when the majority of the teachers accept
the change and only a few teachers offer resistance.
Manipulation and cooptation
 Manipulation comprises the isolation of the teacher or group of teachers who offer
resistance to the change.
 This can be done by withholding information, distorting information so that it
appears more acceptable.
 Cooptation is a form of both manipulation and participation. Co-opting the
leader(s) of the group of teachers who offer resistance gives him or her (or them) a
key role in the planning or implementation of the envisaged change.
Force
 This comprises the use of coercion by the school principal by means of threats
such as job loss, withholding promotion, dismissal or transfer.
 It is used when it is imperative to implement and bring about change swiftly
(quickly or speedily) and the school principal has sufficient authority.
