• are also known as genetically modified or GM crops

• A transgenic crop plant contains a gene or genes which have been artificially
inserted instead of a plant acquiring them through pollination.

•The inserted gene sequence (transgene) may come from another

unrelated plant, or completely different species.

• Throughout history all crops have been genetically modified from their
original wild state by domestication, selection, and control of breeding
over long periods of time.

• Genetic engineering speeds up the process and increases the variety of

genes which can be inserted into a particular plant.
An Overview of the Crop Genetic Engineering cycle
 This was the first “genetically modified” food approved by the
FDA in 1994. It was eventually pulled off the market in 1997
because of the controversy surrounding it. Questions arose
about it’s effects on human health, the environment, potential
gene transfer, and the creation of “Frankenfood or GM Food”.
 Flavr Savr Traditional

The Flavr Savr tomato ripens The traditional tomato must be

on the vine – resulting in fuller harvested while it is still green
flavour. It is modified so that it and firm so that it is not crushed
remains firm after harvesting. on the way to the supermarket.

The traditional tomato is

sprayed with ethylene
after shipping to induce
ripening.

Ripe and Increased Flavour. Ripe but decreased Flavour.

 GM Crops 
The Big Four: Soybean, Maize,
Rapeseed and Cotton

GM Soybeans
• Over half of the world's 2007 soybean crop (58.6%) was
genetically modified
• 40 million tonnes of soy are imported into the EU each year
It is used as animal feed and as a raw material for numerous
food additives.

Aims of GM Soybean:
 Resistance against herbicides
 Resistance against pathogens and insect pests
 Quality traits-increased content of oleic acid(86%)
-modified protein and aa e.g. methionine
-health promoting ingredients- sterols and Vit. E
-removal of allergens
Acreage of soybeans in million hectares worldwide
GM soybean share in the total soybean acreage of a country
 Utilization: 
Ingredients and Additives
Soy is Everywhere
Soybeans are the basis for countless
ingredients, additives, and vitamins. They
provide nutrients for microorganisms and
feed for poultry, swine, and cattle. It is
estimated that soy plays at least a small part
in 20,000 to 30,000 products that are on the
market today, whether directly as an
ingredient or indirectly as feed or a nutrient
source.
 Transgenic Maize
 Genetically modified maize was grown for the first
time in the US and Canada in 1997.
 Maize is the only GM crop that is grown
commercially in the EU.
Aims of R&D:
• Resistance to herbicides and insect pests
• Adaptation to climate such as drought resistance, tolerance to
high salts and heavy metals
• Male sterile lines for hybrid breeding (HYV)
• Modified quality traits-high lysine and tryptophan, Vit. E
• Production of energy crops-bioethanol
 Transgenic Maize
Classification

•Transgenic Maize(corn) -
resistant to herbicides –
Glyphosate and
Imidazoline

• Bt Corn – Resistant to
European Corn Borer

•Hybrids with both

herbicide and pesticide
resistance has also been
produced.
Acreage of GM maize in million hectares
GM maize share in the total maize acreage of a country
 Utilization:
Food Stuffs and Ingredients:
 corn oil, corn flour used for baking and in snacks
 cornflakes and other cereals
 alcoholic drink, such as beer
 starch and modified starch, including numerous products with sugar
produced from starch
Animal feed:
 more than two thirds of the world's maize crop is used as animal
feed (corn gluten, silage)
Energy crops, renewable primary products:
 maize as a source of energy: Bioethanol
 maize starch: used to produce “edible crockery”
 Ingredients and Additives
Corn Syrup, Fructose, and Glucose - All
Are Products of Starch

• Gucose syrup: Used in sweets, baked goods, and soft

drinks
• Dextrose (glucose): Sold pure or used in sweets and
energy foods
• Fructose: Sweetener for diabetics
• Dextrin: Filler and thickener in sweets, convenience
products; carrier substance for flavours and vitamins
• Maltose (maltitol): Sweetener in sugar-free or low-
sugar products
 Rapeseed/Canola
 Rapeseed is an important food crop, a fact that
was made possible through modern plant
breeding
 These new cultivars are known as "double-zero"
rapeseed
 In Canada, the crop was renamed "canola"
(Canadian oil) to differentiate it from non-edible
rapeseed
 These improved rapeseed cultivars were free of
erucic acid and glucosinolates
Acreage of rapeseed in million hectares
GM rapeseed share in the total rapeseed acreage of a country
 
 Utilization
Foodstuffs:
• rapeseed oil from the seeds is processed to cooking oil and is used
mainly in margarines.
• rapeseed honey contains the pollen taken up by bees when
collecting the nectar. 
Bee-transferred GM rapeseed genes – as well as all other genes –
can be detected in honey.
By-products of oil-production:
• oil cake remaining after pressing as animal feed
Energy Crop:
• biologically degradable oils and lubricants
• a base for paints and varnish
• Biodiesel in Europe is made exclusively from rapeseed oil.
• Rapeseed oil can be used as fuel directly
 Cotton
• GM cotton has become widespread, covering a total
of 15 million hectares in 2007, or 43 percent of the
world's cotton
• Most GM cotton is grown in India and the US, but it can
also be found in China, Argentina, South Africa,
Australia, Mexico, and Columbia
• The production of GM cotton has not yet been approved
in the EU
• More than half (68%) of China's cotton production is
genetically modified
 Utilization
Food and Feed:
• Oil: the high-quality cotton seed oil is utilized for cooking and deep
frying, as well as in margarine.
• Whole grain: the albuminous pellet is used primarily for feed. It is
also a the base for protein compounds and isolates, as well as for
cotton seed milk.
• ‘Linters’: These very short, non-textile fibres cling to the cotton
seeds. They consist almost exclusively of cellulose. Various food
additives such as thickening agents, stabilizers, emulsifiers or fillers
are made from these.
Renewable resources:
 Principal customer for cotton linters is the paper industry that
produces high-quality, tear-resistant papers, used for example for
bank notes.
 Fruits and Vegetables:

 No genetically modified fruit or vegetables are on the

market in the EU. Any GM plants authorized in the EU
are not intended for direct consumption
 Genetically modified fruits and vegetables are still quite a
long way from commercial use in the EU

FlavrSavr
In 1994, genetically modified tomatoes hit the
market in the US as the first commercially
available genetically modified crop
 FlavrSavr
This transgenic tomato (FlavrSavr) had a "deactivated"
gene (Antisense approach). This meant that the tomato
plant was no longer able to produce polygalacturonase,
an enzyme involved in fruit softening. The premise was
that tomatoes could be left to ripen on the vine and still
have a long shelf life, thus allowing them to develop their
full flavour.

Tomato puree made from GM tomatoes was a big

success in the mid 90s in Great Britain.
 Papaya

 In the late 1980s, the University of Hawaii began

developing a papaya cultivar resistant to Papaya
Ringspot Virus
 Since 1998, genetically modified papayas have been
cultivated in Hawaii, USA
 Genetically modified papayas are approved for
consumption both in the US and in Canada
 GM papayas are not approved in the EU.
 Apple

 Apple growers in Europe have to deal with dozens of

different diseases including fire blight, apple scab, and
powdery mildew
 As of yet, no genetically modified apples have been
approved anywhere in the world
 By the end of 2006, nine field trials with GM apples were
registered in the EU
 Numerous field trials have been underway in the US
 Global Status for Commercialized
Transgenic Crops (2005)
Major Countries Area (in mha) Major GM Crops
USA 49.8 Soybean, Maize,
Cotton, Canola,
Squash, Papaya
Argentina 17.1 Soybean, Maize, Cotton
Brazil 9.4 Soybean
Canada 5.8 Canola, Maize, Soybean
China 3.3 Cotton
Paraguay 1.8 Soybean
India 1.3 Cotton
South Africa 0.5 Maize, Soybean, Cotton
Uruguay 0.3 Soybean, Maize, Cotton
Australia 0.3 Cotton
www.attra.ncat.org
Control Mechanisms used by Seed Companies

• Technology Protection System, also known as the “terminator”,

incorporates a trait that kills developing plant embryo’s so seeds
cannot be saved and replanted in subsequent years
• “Traitor”, also known as Trait-specific Genetic Use Restriction
Technology incorporates a control mechanism that requires
yearly applications of a propriety chemical to activate desirable
traits in the crop
• the farmer can save and replant seeds but cannot gain the
benefits of the controlled traits unless he pays for the
activating chemical each year
• improved nutritional quality
• increased crop yield
• insect resistance
• disease resistance
• herbicide resistance
Weed-infested soybean plot (left) and
• salt tolerance Roundup Ready® soybeans after Roundup
treatment. Source: Monsanto
• biopharmaceuticals
• saving valuable topsoil
• ability to grow plants in harsh environments
•Damage to human health
•allergies
•horizontal transfer and antibiotic resistance
•eating foreign DNA
•changed nutrient levels
•Damage to the natural environment
•crop-to-weed gene flow
•leakage of GM proteins into soil
•reductions in pesticide spraying: are they real?
•Disruption of current practices of farming and food production
in developed countries
•crop-to-crop gene flow
•Disruption of traditional practices and economies in less
developed countries
• Lack of research on consequences of transgenic crops
• disruption of natural ecosystems
• introduction of diseases
• creation of biological weapons
• ethical dilemmas
• ie. Could human genes be
inserted into new crops?
 Unresolved issues in transgenic
agriculture:
• Food safety
• Farm management
• Crop yield, costs, and profitability
• Marketing and trade
• Organic industry impacts
• Influence on public research
• Industry concentration and farmers’ right to
save seed
• Regulation of transgenic crops and
apportionment of liability
 Processed Foods: GMOs?
For the most part, foods in European
supermarkets are not genetically modified
 Tomatoes, Potatoes, Apples ...
GM products on the market: no
Labelling: yes
 Baked Goods
(Bread, Biscuits, Snacks)
• Flour from GM soybean
Labelling: yes
• Oils from GM soybean or GM rapeseed
Labelling: yes
• Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) produced by GM microorganisms 
Labelling: no
• Glutamate (flavour enhancer used in snacks) produced by GM microorganisms 
Labelling: no
• Enzymes and other processing aids produced with the help of GM microorganisms
Labelling: no
 Contd…
 Sweets 
(Chocolate, Candy, Ice Cream ...)
• Lecithin from GM soy
Labelling: yes
• Glucose or glucose syrup (corn syrup) from GM maize
Labelling: yes
• Sugar from sugar beets
Labelling: yes
• Enzymes produced with the help of GM microorganisms
Labelling: no
• Ingredients and additives from GM maize
Labelling: yes
• Sweeteners: Aspartame or citric acid produced by GM microorganisms
Labelling: no 
 GM Food and Feed:
Safe??

 Foods made from genetically modified plants must be

considered safe – otherwise they would not have been
authorised. All GM products are tested to see if they
could trigger allergies or contain other substances that
could possibly be dangerous to human health.
 An absolute guarantee that a food is safe is virtually
impossible – this holds true for food made from
conventional ingredients as well as for foods made from
genetically modified organisms
 Contd…
• More allergies because of GMOs?
 There are widespread fears that if genetically modified foods with foreign proteins
are introduced to the market, food allergies will become more and more
widespread. This common fear actually has little to do with reality. 
• A contentious issue: Antibiotic resistance
 Labelling of GMO Products:
Freedom of Choice for
Consumers

• If a foodstuff is produced using genetic engineering, this must be indicated

on its label
• Actual labelling practice, however, is far more complicated - and must be
planned and regulated with issues such as feasibility, legal responsibilities,
coherence and standardisation in mind
• GMO labelling in the European Union: Basic
Principles
 All food, and any ingredients, directly produced from a GMO must be
labelled, even if this GMO is undetectable in the final product
 Environmental Safety
Biodiversity

Are genetically modified plants a threat to

the environment? Up until now, genetically
modified crops have not caused
environmental problems. But each new
genetically modified plant needs to be
closely examined to find out if negative
impacts on the environment could be
possible down the road
 The issue of contradictory
results of biosafety studies
• The results of biosafety studies on GM crops
are often controversially discussed in public
debates.
• More importantly, results of such studies are
used for the justification of political decisions
• For example, the cultivation of the genetically
modified MON810 maize was banned in
Germany in April 2009, mainly substantiated
with two new studies that claim to show that
MON810 poses a risk to two-spotted ladybirds
and water-fleas, however these studies were
scientifically controversial.
http://dragon.zoo.utoronto.ca/~jlm-gmf/T0501D/introduction.html

http://www.colostate.edu/programs/lifesciences/TransgenicCrops/animation.html#

http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/TransgenicPlants.html#Terminator_Genes

http://images.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=www.carascissoria.com/images/poli/frankenfood.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
carascissoria.com/general/singles/6173.htm&h=310&w=234&sz=33&tbnid=4aYYWnTCTGMJ:&tbnh=111&tbnw=
84&start=2&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dfrankenfood%2Bpictures%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26ie%3DUTF-8%26sa%
3DN

http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/sci/biotech/safsal/gmoogme.shtml

http://www.greenpeace.ca/e/campaign/gmo/backgrnd/index.php

Whitney, E.N. and Rolfes, S.R. (2002). Understanding Nutrition (9th edition). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.