THE EARTH AND ITS PEOPLES

CHAPTER 24: LAND EMPIRES IN THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM

Group 3:
Ian VonFange, EJ Gelvin, Kevin Doherty, Steven Lawson, Malcolm Moses, and Alex Lombardo
 In the 18th century, the Ottomans lost most of their power to provincial governors, military
commanders, and ethical reformers.

• Egypt and the Napoleonic Example, 1798-1840

• Napoleon invaded Egypt, then under Ottoman control, in 1798; however, the provincial governors he established there
were cut off from France by the Mediterranean Sea and the British navy. They agreed to withdraw in 1801.

• Muhammad Ali was an Albanian commander sent by the Ottoman sultan to restore imperial control in Egypt.

• By 1805, he had taken the place of official Ottoman governor over Egypt. He largely adopted French
practices in his reformation of the Egyptian state, established military training schools, and began a serial
gazette of official affairs, the first newspaper in the Islamic world. Napoleon’s brief occupation of Egypt,
thus, influenced Ali greatly as a ruler.

• As Ali attempted to modernize Egypt, he relied largely on European ideals, implanting a European-style
education system, even constructing cultural monuments to inspire Nationalism. He attempted to expand
Egypt’s border into Israel, but his lacking military was overpowered by British forces and was forced to
withdraw in 1841.

• Ali remained Egypt’s ruler until his death in 1849. His son, Ibrahim, ruled following his death, and expanded
Egyptian control to include Syria and Anatolia by 1879.
Ottoman Reform and the European Model, 1807-1853

• As the whole of the Ottoman Empire became more influenced by European culture and political
structure, massive changes occurred. Especially in Serbia, the Janissaries became influential
provincial governors, and began to oppose the dictates of the centralized Ottoman government.

• Sultans Selim III and Mahmud II were forced to deal with violent Janissary uprisings, which
weakened the Ottomans significantly. Mahmud was especially interested in European-style
reforms, and his son, Sultan Abdul Mejid, proclaimed his father’s Tanzimat (reorganization) in
1839.

• The enlightened style of the Tanzimat brought about a modernized Ottoman political system,
very similar to many central-European governments.

• Yet, military improvements were scarce in the new reforms. The Ottoman Empire could not
maintain its control over Serbia throughout the Tanzimat period due to their lacking military
being threatened by Russian intervention and internal Janissary revolts.
 Ottoman rule of the Georgian Caucasus region.

• The Russian-Ottoman dispute gained distinctive prominence when, in 1852, Ottoman leaders gave
way to British and French pressures. The ensuing “Eastern Question” was a dispute between major
European powers over the collapsing Ottoman Empire — what states might control what regions,
where political and religious influence came into play, and so on.

• This “Eastern Question” did not become fully resolved until after World War I, when the Ottoman
Empire totally collapsed.

• Britain and France began to side more with the Ottoman Empire in its political dispute with Russia.
As tensions rose, Russia and the Ottomans waged the Crimean War between 1853 and 1856.
 The Crimean War and Its Aftermath, 1853-1877

• The Ottomans had the support of Britain, France, and the Italian kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont.

• The Russians established a base at Sevastopol in Crimea, but had primitive military technology and
insufficient supplies for its army and navy. The combined Ottoman forces easily overtook the
disorganized Russians at Sevastopol when Tsar Nicholas died in 1856.

• The peace treaties established between the countries involved in the war discredited heavily the
Russian government. British and French political powers continued to instill their dominance over the
fading Ottoman Empire, subtly but effectively taking control.

• Yet, the overarching effect of the Crimean War was the onset of a transition from the traditional
warfare of antiquity in Europe to a more modern warfare driven by heavy firearms and mechanized
methods of killing. The modernized warfare established in the Crimean War would gain prominence
throughout the Western and Eastern Worlds as the 19th century waned and the 20th century began.