memory is the part of the computer that stores data and programs modern computers are digital devices,

, meaning they store and process information as binary digits (bits) bits are commonly represented as either 0 or 1 bits are the building block of digital memory by grouping bits together, large ranges of values can be represented memory capacity is usually specified in bytes a byte is a collection of 8 bits so can represent a range of 28 = 256 values large collections of bytes can be specified using prefixes

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Bit: Short for binary digit (0s and 1s), the only data that a CPU can process. Byte: An 8-bit string of data, needed to represent any one alphanumeric character or simple mathematical operation.

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Computer Memory

Kilobyte (KB): approximately one thousand bytes. Megabyte (MB): approximately one million bytes (1,048,576 bytes, or 1,024 x 1,024). Gigabyte (GB): actually 1,073,741,824 bytes (1,024 x 1,024 x 1,024 bytes). Terabyte: One trillion bytes. Petabyte: Approximately 1015 bytes. Exabyte: Approximately 1018 bytes.
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Memory
Main memory consists of a number of storage locations, each of which is identified by a unique address The ability of the CPU to identify each location is known as its addressability Each location stores a word i.e. the number of bits that can be processed by the CPU in a single operation. Word length may be typically 16, 24, 32 or as many as 64 bits. A large word length improves system performance, though may be less efficient on occasions when the full word length is not used
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Modern

computers use a combination of memory types, each with its own performance and cost characteristics
Main

memory (or primary memory) is fast and expensive data is stored as electric signals in circuitry, used to store active data memory is volatile data is lost when the computer is turned off examples: Random Access Memory (RAM), cache memory is slower but cheaper use different technologies (magnetic signals on hard disk, reflective spots on CD) memory is permanent useful for storing long-term data examples: hard disk, floppy disk, compact disk (CD), flash drive

Secondary

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Computer Memory

Primary storage or main memory stores three types of information for very brief periods of time: Data to be processed by the CPU; Instructions for the CPU as to how to process the data; Operating system programs that manage various aspects of the computers operation. Primary storage takes place in chips mounted on the computers main circuit board, called the motherboard. Four main types of primary storage: register, random access memory (RAM), cache memory and read-only memory (ROM).
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Registers: registers are part of the CPU with the least capacity, storing extremely limited amounts of instructions and data only immediately before and after processing. Random access memory (RAM): The part of primary storage that holds a software program and small amounts of data when they are brought from secondary storage. Cache memory: A type of primary storage where the computer can temporarily store blocks of data used more often.

Mr.S.M.Raut

Computer Memory

Read-only memory (ROM): Type of primary storage where certain critical instructions are safeguarded; the storage is nonvolatile and retains the instructions when the power to the computer is turned off. Flash memory: A form of rewritable read-only memory that is compact, portable, and requires little energy.

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Types of RAM
1. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) Contents are constantly refreshed 1000 times per second Access time 60 70 nanoseconds

Note: a nanosecond is one billionth of a second! 2. Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (SDRAM)
Quicker than DRAM Access time less than 60 nanoseconds 3. Direct Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRDRAM) New type of RAM architecture Access time 20 times faster than DRAM More expensive
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Types of RAM
4. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) Doesnt need refreshing Retains contents as long as power applied to the chip Access time around 10 nanoseconds Used for cache memory Also for date and time settings as powered by small battery 5. Cache memory Small amount of memory typically 256 or 512 kilobytes Temporary store for often used instructions

Level 1 cache is built within the CPU (internal)

Level 2 cache may be on chip or nearby (external) Faster for CPU to access than main memory
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Types of RAM
6. Video Random Access memory Holds data to be displayed on computer screen Has two data paths allowing READ and WRITE to occur at the same time A systems amount of VRAM relates to the number of colours and resolution A graphics card may have its own VRAM chip on board 7. Virtual memory Uses backing storage e.g. hard disk as a temporary location for programs and data where insufficient RAM available Swaps programs and data between the hard-disk and RAM as the CPU requires them for processing A cheap method of running large or many programs on a computer system Cost is speed: the CPU can access RAM in nanoseconds but hard-disk in milliseconds (Note: a millisecond is a thousandth of a second)
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Read only memory (ROM)

ROM holds programs and data permanently even when computer is switched off
Data can be read by the CPU in any order so ROM is also direct access The contents of ROM are fixed at the time of manufacture Stores a program called the bootstrap loader that helps start up the computer Access time of between 10 and 50 nanoseconds

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Types of ROM
1. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) Empty of data when manufactured May be permanently programmed by the user 2. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

Can be programmed, erased and reprogrammed

The EPROM chip has a small window on top allowing it to be erased by shining ultra-violet light on it After reprogramming the window is covered to prevent new contents being erased Access time is around 45 90 nanoseconds

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Types of ROM
3. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) Reprogrammed electrically without using ultraviolet light Must be removed from the computer and placed in a special machine to do this

Access times between 45 and 200 nanoseconds 4. Flash ROM

Similar to EEPROM However, can be reprogrammed while still in the computer Easier to upgrade programs stored in Flash ROM Used to store programs in devices e.g. modems Access time is around 45 90 nanoseconds 5. ROM cartridges Commonly used in games machines Prevents software from being easily copied
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Memory capacity that can store very large amounts of data for extended periods of time. It is non-volatile. It takes much more time to retrieve data because of the electromechanical nature. It is cheaper than primary storage. It can take place on a variety of media

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Magnetic tape: A secondary storage medium on a large open reel or in a smaller cartridge or cassette. Sequential access: Data access in which the computer system must run through data in sequence in order to locate a particular piece. Magnetic disks: A form of secondary storage on a magnetized disk divided into tracks and sectors that provide addresses for various pieces of data; also called hard disks.

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Hard drives: A form of secondary storage that stores data on platters divided into concentric tracks and sectors, which can be read by a read/write head that pivots across the rotating disks. Direct access: Data access in which any piece of data be retrieved in a non-sequential manner by locating it using the datas address. Magnetic diskettes: A form of easily portable secondary storage on flexible Mylar disks; also called floppy disks.

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Optical storage devices: A form of secondary storage in which a laser reads the surface of a reflective plastic platter. Compact disk, read-only memory (CD-ROM): A form of secondary storage that can be only read and not written on. Digital video disk (DVD): An optical storage device used to store digital video or computer data. Fluorescent multilayer disk (FMD-ROM): An optical storage device with much greater storage capacity than DVDs.
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Memory cards: Credit-card-size storage devices that can be installed in an adapter or slot in many personal computers (i.e. memory sticks, thumb drives). Expandable storage devices: Removable disk cartridges, used as backup storage for internal hard drives of PCs.

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